AEN 200 Introduction to phonetics and phonology

e-Lecture III: The Production of Consonant Sounds

3. Introduction
Our third lecture in this series is on articulatory phonetics in which we discuss the production

of consonant speech sounds. Human speech sound fall into the two categories of consonants

and vowels. Consonants and vowels differ from each other in several ways. Consonants are

categorized and described by phoneticians using the features of initiation, place and manner

of articulation and phonation.

3.1 Lecture Objectives

By the end of this lecture, students should be able to:

3.1.1 Describe the initiation process

3.1.2 Name the five airstream mechanisms

3.1.3 Describe each airstream mechanism

3.2.1 The Production of Consonant Sounds

E-tivity 3.2.1: Initiation: Airstream mechanisms
Title
Initiation: Airstream mechanisms
Purpose To enable you describe the different types of
airstream mechanisms
Brief summary of overall task Identifying and describing the airstream
mechanisms
Spark What is initiation in phonetics?

Individual task
(a) Define initiation
(b) Name the five airstream mechanisms
(c) Describe each airstream mechanism

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AEN 200 Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology notes by Dr Evelyn Simiyu Machakos University
 Interaction begins What is airstream mechanism?
E-moderator interventions 1. Direct and help students to focus on
the content
2. Help students generate new ideas on
the topic
3. Provide feedback
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This –etivity should take 40 minutes on –
May 2020
Next The production of consonant sounds:
phonation

From our discussion above, you need to note the following three ways of describing consonant

sounds:

1. Initiation – This is the activity in the vocal tract that compresses the air in the tract ant

therefore initiates or tend to initiate an airstream mechanism. The direction in which

the air stream flows and the vocal organs involved both contribute in determining the

initiation type for a particular sound segment. The organ that is involved in the

initiation during the production of a particular speech sound is called the initiator.

Airstream Mechanism is the term that is used to describe the body of moving air that

is used in speech production. It is important to determine and describe the direction in

which the airstream mechanism travels. There are five (5) types of initiation.

(a) Pulmonic pressure –this type of initiation derives its name from its initiator, the

lungs, hence pulmonic. Air is expelled from the lungs, up the windpipe and gets out

through either the nose or moth or through both. This is the commonest initiator in

the production of speech sounds in many languages of the world, including English.

Actually, a good number of speech sound segments in English are produced using

pulmonic pressure; e.g. [f], [v], [w], and [l]. Give example of words.

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AEN 200 Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology notes by Dr Evelyn Simiyu Machakos University
 (b) Pulmonic Suction (Pulmonic Ingressive Mechanism)- if the direction of airflow

is into the lungs, then this is referred to as pulmonic suction initiation. This type of

initiation is not very common but may be seen on the onset of yawning and in

speech when occasional words are uttered with pulmonic initiation suction so as to

disguise one’s voice or just for fun. Pulmonic suction initiation is mostly used for

normal breathing.

(c) Glottalic Pressure/ Glottalic Eggressive Mechanism

This initiation is associated with the glottis which are the spaces between the vocal

cords. The vocal cords are located in the larynx. In this type of initiation, the

initiator is the larynx and as this happens the glottis is closed. To understand how

the glottalic airstream works, try this:

Pretend that you are about to cough and move your larynx (Adams

Apple upwards and downwards several times. What do you observe?

You will notice that any upward movement of the larynx clearly pushes air

out of the larynx. On the other hand, any downward movement of the larynx

tends to suck in air.

Whenever we have upward movement of the larynx resulting into air being pushed out

of the larynx, we talk of there being glottalic pressure. Sound segments produced with

this type of initiation are referred to as ejectives. An example of such a sound is [t’]in

the Tlingit language as in the word [t’ij]- ‘elbow’. The glottalic eggressive mechanism

is also known as pharyngeal airstream mechanism found in non European languages.

(d) Glottalic Suction

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AEN 200 Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology notes by Dr Evelyn Simiyu Machakos University
 As observed in the experiment under glottalic pressure initiation, a downward thrust

of the larynx generates suction of air. The sounds produced in this type of initiation

are called implosives. An example is [ ] sound in Shona as in the word [baba]-

‘father’

(e) Velaric Suction (ingressive)

In this type of initiation the initiators are the tongue and the velum. First the back

of the body of the tongue must be pushed to create a partial vaccum in the region

around the velum. Secondly, air must flow inward the vocal tract these stages are

necessary in the production of sound segments associated with velaric suction

airstream mechanism. An example is the [ʇ] sound in Zulu. Note that Zulu is a

‘click’ language and therefore has several click sounds. In English the click sound

used to express annoyance is an example.

3.2.2 The Production of Consonant Sounds

E-tivity 3.2.2: phonation
Title
Phonation
Purpose To enable you describe the two types of
phonation
Brief summary of overall task Identifying and describing the different
phonation types
Spark What is phonation

Individual task
(a) Define phonation
(b) Name the two types of phonation
(c) Describe each phonation type
(d) Give examples of sounds produced with
each phonation

[Type here]
AEN 200 Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology notes by Dr Evelyn Simiyu Machakos University
 Interaction begins Put your hand on your Adams apple and
produce /s/ and /z/ respectively.
Explain what you observe in each case
E-moderator interventions 1. Direct and help students to focus on
the content
2. Help students generate new ideas on
the topic
3. Provide feedback
4. Close the e-tivity
Schedule and time This –etivity should take 40 minutes on –
May 2020
Next The production of consonant sounds: place
and manner of articulation

From our discussion above, you need to note the following regarding phonation as one of the

ways of describing consonant sounds. Let us first consider the definition of phonation by

Cardford ( 1982) who defines it as:

the activity in the larynx which is neither initiatory nor articulatory but in which the

air is modulated by its passage through the glottis (the space between the vocal cords)

before finally being ‘shaped’ into the sound type by the articulation.

There are two types of phonation:

1. Voiced- to produce consonants that are voiced, the vocal

cords must be drawn close to each other, hence a closed

glottis. Whenever air attempts to pass, through an

obstruction created by the ‘closed’ glottis, it produces rapid

vibrations of the vocal cords. Sounds produced in this

manner are described as being voiced. Try saying zzzzz and

ssss as you hold your adams apple- what do you observe?

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AEN 200 Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology notes by Dr Evelyn Simiyu Machakos University
 2. Voiceless- Sometimes in the production of a sound segment,

the vocal cords may be drawn wide apart, and therefore an

open glottis. If the vocal cords are apart, then the air escapes

unimpeded- it flows freely. Sounds produced this way are

called voiceless sounds. Examples are: [p], [k], [h], [s], [f],

[Ɵ]

As you look at the two types of phonation, you also need to take note of the state

of the glottis. The glottis is the opening between the vocal codes/ folds in the

larynx. State of the glottis about the posture of the articulators in the laryngeal area

during speak production. The postures in this area are what causes supra-segmental

activities such as pitch ( low vs high), tone and stress. There are four (4) states of

the glottis:

(i) Open glottis- this means that the vocal cords are drawn wide apart so that

the airstream can pass through them quite freely. This is the state of the

glottis for normal breathing. It is referred to as ‘breath state’. This state

produces no sound and it is the state that is commonly assumed in speech.

This is the state that produces voiceless sounds.

(ii) Glottis in vibration- the vocal cords are alternately brought together.

(iii) Narrowed glottis- the vocal codes come together but do not close the

passage

(iv) Closed glottis- the vocal codes are very close together

CONCLUSION

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AEN 200 Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology notes by Dr Evelyn Simiyu Machakos University
During speech production, there are five airstream mechanisms that can be used, depending on

the sound that one wants to produce and that it is easier to produce speech with outgoing rather

than incoming air. Speech sounds and other supra-segmental activities happen using any of the

four states of the glottis- open, closed, in vibration or narrowed.

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AEN 200 Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology notes by Dr Evelyn Simiyu Machakos University