Hegel - Not to 

learn
Age 

Place  Prussia

Concern  Supremacy of state

 Idealist - idea forms the basic structure of reality 
o Real is rational and rational is real
 Human history - dialectical movement of idea 
 Ideas come first then history takes change.
 Justified war
School of Thought 
o Tackle corruption and strengthen nationalism 
o Clear as to which state is nearest to God
o Prussian state nearest to God
 State is the march of God on Earth 

State is the March of God on Earth

God—> Non-living - plants - birds- animals - Man - family - civil society - state || End of history 

 Certain teleology
 How do we know that god created the world — REASON 
 Why Reason 
o God - Ultimate idea, universal spirit 
 World has 2 parts - Spiritual and Material — Spiritual is superior
 Alienation —> Separation from god
 End of alienation ==> Freedom and happiness 
o God — part in each man — come together to form the state => universal spirit in state
o Human history is unfolding of universal spirit.
o Hence state is the march of god on  earth 

Concept of Dialectics

Applied dialectics to understand the movement of Ideas

 Unity of opposites
 Negation of negations
 Quantity changes to Quality

Every next step is better than previous, progressive view of history.

End of movement of ideas - End of history 
FAMILY               Civil Society                 State
G - Altruism        G- Universalism          Universalism + Altruism 
B- Particularism   B- Egoism 
"Real is Rational and rational is real”

 Epistemology - Basis of knowledge 

 Ontology - Purpose of knowledge 
 Above statement explains Hegel’s epistemology and ontology 
 First statement - Epistemology - He is an idealist like Plato - Idea is the reality - Reason needed to
 understand what is Real 
 Second - Ontology - State is March of god on Earth - Universal Altruism like god - this is the reality and hence
rational. If we apply our reason we will understand, state does all things, which God does.
 Criticism: Marx -> Hegel is standing on his head, he is to stand on his feet, spreading false consciousness.
 State: “Executive committee of bourgeoise class ”

Karl Marx
Age  1818-1823
Place  Germany —> Shifted to Britain  
Concern 
School of  Materialist
Thought  o Idea is False consciousness 
 Critic of religion - Opium of Masses - God has not made man but man has made god 
 Socialist 
o For socialists - Equality is important 
o Equality of outcomes, substantive equality
o Socialism <-> Antithesis <-> Capitalism 
o Instead of competition — COOPERATION — modern industrial society
o Marx was neither the first nor the last socialist
o Most important — So classification - BM and After Marx 
o Marx called early socialists - Utopian and his socialism as Scientific

Why Marx Socialism as Scientific?

 Socialism - origin - French R - Louis Blanc - Lacked scientific understanding of Capitalism - Lacked
theory — so utopian 
 Later Socialists - Charles Fourier and Robert Owen - appeal to consciousness of Capitalist class - Lacked
theory and a scientific action plan 
 Not by peaceful means — but by violent means 
 "Violence is the  midwife of change, there has been no birth without blood”
  Inspires - working class - violent revolution 
 Marx scientific theory because 
o Scientific understanding — Historical Materialism (Materialist interpretation of history)
o Program of action - scientific 
o Theory – Praxis (theory + action)

What is Praxis?

 Action based on Theory 

 Philosophers have interpreted the world, but what matters is to change it 
 Appeal - Workers of the world unite. U have nothing to lose except ur chains.U have a world to win   
 Marxism — Revolutionary pol program — Anti-religion and anti-nation 
 Proletarian Internationalism
 Classless
 Stateless
 Anarchism
 Need based society
 Work according to capacity and get according to need.
 Freedom from necessity

 British school of Political economy ( Economy of the state) - Adam smith, Ricardo
 French Revolution 
Influences 
 German Philosophy - Hegel 

 Young - Philosopher — (Followers - Neo-Marxists)

o Economic and Philosophical manuscripts- Concept of Alienation 
 Matured - Politician — (F - Orthodox Marxists- Lenin, Mao and Stalin)
Books
o Das Kapital 
o Communist Manifesto - Theory of Revolution 

 Historical Materialism 
 Dialectical Materialism 
 Concept of Class and Class struggle
 Analysis of Capitalism 
Key
 Theory of Revolutions
Principles 
 Socialism 
 Communism 
 Marx Concept of Alienation — Most imp for exam 

Historical Materialism

 Economic Interpretation of History 

  Marx’s explanation of History — Bcoz Marx wants to change history —
 One should know how history changes scientifically — to make a scientific plan of Action 
 For Marxists - HM = Science
 How 
o By contradicting Hegel’s view of history — History - dialectical movement of ideas
o Marx —> Hegel is standing on his head. Need to make him stand on his feet
o Not Idea but matter that shapes reality
o It is not our consciousness that determines our existence but our existence which determines our consciousness

Development of Marx’s Theory of History 

 For scientific understanding of history - understand the FIRST HISTORICAL ACT OF MAN –
 Thinking or Production
 “In order to think, one has to live. In order to live, one has to eat. In order to eat one has to produce. Hence it is
for the purpose of production that man created Society."
 Implications
o Manual work is more important : 
 To change history - live - produce — Manual Labour >>> Intellectual labour 
 Intellectual class - exploiter class 
 Blames Phil like Plato — permanently deprived the working class from becoming rulers.
 Philosophers generating FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS
o Most important function is production 
 Production is a social act
 Man cannot produce or satisfy his needs on his own - so created a society 
 Society - Division of Labour; Basic str of society = Economic structure;
 Man cannot survive w/o society
o Mode of production
 Means of production -> land, labour etc.
 Forces of production -> technology etc.
 Relations of production
 Haves and have-nots
 Person’s interest is interest of his class
 Relations are contradictory and dialectical

Marx Base and Super Structure Model 

Marxism —> Historical Materialism —> Mode of analysis - MB&SsM

 Core idea of HM - Basic mode of analysis in Marxism 

 Structuralism -> to make sense of complex reality, identify fundamental structure.
 Implications 
o Econ str = Basic Str = Mode of production of society — For the task of production we have created a society.
o Other institutions like state, church, media edu instis, family => Superstructure 
o Superstructure - not independent or autonomous existence => reflection of the base => roots in basic structure 
 o When econ str changes ==> superstructure changes automatically 
o Class which controls the economic str controls all other structures 
 Criticise 
o Max Weber – ‘Protestant Ethics and Spirit of Capitalism’ : Monocausal 
o Gramsci - Too simplistic - Superstr is also a str 
o G.A. Cohen – Economic reductionism/determinism
o Karl Popper – Historicism
o Managerial Revolution – James Burnham
o Feminists – patriarchy is basic structure of society
o Positive liberals – Will not force is basis of state

Revolution acc to Marx — When Mode of production changes. Capitalism => Socialism. Pol reforms won’t do 

"History of all Hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles” 

Class Struggle —> How history changes acc to Marx

 Historical change = Change in the mode of production 

 Acc to Law of dialectics — Contradiction is the moving force of history — From old emerge new - 
 Limit to which old can hold the new == > Time comes - co-existence not possible
 Factors of change 
o New forces of production Emerge - Some time coexist - gradually old becomes fetter on the new.
o New Classes Emerge - class struggle - coexist for some time - beyond that not possible 

Stages of Human History by Marx - Class struggle

1. Pre Historic Age:

o Primitive Communism- Common ownership of means of production - Not class divided - So state not required 
o Abundant resources - No conflict
o Why Concept of Primitive Communism 
 Once man was living without private prop - so a man can still live without pvt prop
 Abundance — No competition or conflict 
 Marx Communism — abundance - industrialisation and satisfaction of wants  
 Gandhi — supported minimisation of wants — didn't favour industrialisation 
2. Slave Society 
 Masters
 Slaves
3. Feudal Society 
 Lords 
 Serfs
4. Capitalist Society 
 Capitalists
 Workers
5. Socialism 
o Not as the general concept of Socialism — Transitional stage - Dictatorship of Proletariat 
 o It will come by Violent revolution and overthrow of Capitalism 
 Workers 
 Capitalist 
o Conditions 
 Capitalism - Capitalist exploiters, workers exploited, State by Capitalists
 Socialism - Workers exploiters, Capitalist exploited, State controlled by Workers
o System of Distribution 
 Socialist —> From each according to his capacity to each according to his work
 Capitalism — Workers are forced to work beyond their capacity and not paid acc to work 
o Nature of State
 Capitalist — Democracies (false) for minority (capitalist) and dictatorship of minority over majority 
 Socialist — Democracy (true) for majority (workers) and dictatorship of Majority over Minority 
6. Communism
o How it will come 
 Peaceful manner
 Gradual shift from Socialism to Communism 
 Private prop abolished
 Classes abolished - No class struggle
 End of History => End of Contradiction => Point of Ultimate synthesis => So communism is the
Ultimate stage — Highest point in man’s material & ideological evol.
 State shall wither away
 Classless - no role to play
 Collective tasks
 SHGs
 Voluntary organistions
 Communism <=> Anarchism 
 Anarchy is not Lawlessness
 It is Absolute Freedom in Marxist sense 
 System of distribution - From each according to his capacity to each according to his need

Marx’s Analysis of Capitalism 

Capitalists dig their own graves

 Capitalism - Full of contradiction - Hence bound to end

 Dehumanizes– objectifies - alienates
 Noam Chomsky — Capitalism: Profit > People : Profit is engine of Capitalism 
 Origin 
o Scientific and industrial revolution 
o Marx even appreciated the bourgeoise class — Productive capacity increased
 Problems 
o Earlier - Production at individual level - Little surplus exchanged
o Now - Machine made goods - durable and cheap 
o Factory system replaced the cottage industry 
o People - no land and no capital — only labour to sell
o Objectification or commodification of Labour 
 o People with Capital - benefit ; Have-nots - exploited 
 How capitalism moves towards its death 
o Profit is the engine of Capitalism 
o Increase profit == Lowering of cost of Production 
 Reducing Wages 
 Capitalist law of wages 
 Give only as much sufficient for survival 
 No surplus - or he will stay back at home 
 Displacement of workers by Machines
 When one capitalist does — more to follow
 More workers available ==> Even lower wages 
o With the progress of capitalism ==> Increasing exploitation 
o Move towards monopoly capitalism.
o Faces crisis at regular intervals — Temporary solutions - (like govt infusion of money)
o Exploitation reaches Extreme 
o Class in Itself ==> Class for Itself => Revolution 
 Criticism 
o Max Weber - monocausal explanation 
 As capitalism advances - proliferation of classes (multi-structuralism) and not exploitation 
 Capitalism is the most rational way of life  

What does the West say on democracy 

 Socialsist —> Western democracies = Plutocracy 

 Cap —> Socialist democracies = Authoritarianism and Totalitarianism 
 In all countries — Communist revolution — Socialism (supposed to be temporary) became permanent 
 Instead of Dictatorship of Proletariat ==> Dictatorship of Communist Party 
 Instead of power to masses — power with elites (Robert Michells- Iron Law of Oligarchy)

Marx’s View on Revolution

Revolution acc to Marx — When Mode of production changes. Capitalism => Socialism. Pol reforms won’t do

Revolution in Capitalism 

 Revolution is complete change. Different from Aristotle’s view.

 Only when Capitalism is fully developed ==> Contradictions will come to surface 
 Coming out of False Consciousness , Developing True Consciousness = Class Consciousness 
 2 stages of Class Consciousness
o Class in Itself — Lower level - Understands that his class is diff from others
o Class for itself — higher level - Takes up arms as no more ready to suffer exploitation 

Difference b/w Marx and Lenin 

  Type of class
o Marx – only working class, no landed class
o Lenin – peasants also included.
 Type of society 
o Marx - capitalist society 
o Lenin - brought it in Russia - which was a semi-feudal society 
 Consciousness 
o Marx - Wait for the development of Class consciousness 
o Lenin - Impatient - thought people will not get it on their own —
o Thought of manufacturing Consciousness 
 Party
o Marx - Spontaneous revolution - No leaders — masses to lead themselves –
o Lenin - Concept of Communist party (vanguards of revolution) - middle class intellectuals —
 Structure
o Marx- revolution to start from economic structure
o Lenin- started from political structure
 Because of Lenin - Dictatorship of Communist party got developed. 

Marx’s View on Alienation - IMP

2. Core concept — Young Marx - “Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts”

3. Dealing with questions like — Freedom and equality
4. Concept of economic man
5. Capitalist freedom = False consciousness = Alienation 
6. Marx differentiates between liberty and freedom.

Sources of Influence 

7. Hegel —> Man is alienated from god — need for higher consciousness —
o realise that universal spirit in the state
o state will allow us to be part of whole and hence remove alienation.
8. Feurbach —> Young hegelians — understand Hegel from new perspective —
o God and religion are source of alienation — Rejection of religion - Real liberation of man 

Marx — Also gp of Young Hegelians 

9. Rejection of just religion not enough 

10. True freedom — Freedom from Capitalist system 
11. Capitalism ==> Alienation of Worker + Alienation of Capitalists == Alienation of all
12. Pain felt by Capitalists is less - life less troublesome than worker’s – 

What is bad in Capitalism ?

 13. Capitalism = Dehumanising man = Objectification of Labour 
14. Destroys human essence- > Cog in the wheel.
15. Freedom - Only when act acc to true nature

Concept of economic man

2. Eric Fromm has elaborated on Marx’s conception of man in his book, “Marx Concept of Man, 1961”
3. 2 essential qualities of Man
o Man is CREATIVE by nature
o Man is SOCIAL by nature
4. Man is a “socio-concrete historical being; the root of man is man himself”, i.e. human being is a product
of his own labour
5. Capitalism deprives man from realising his true nature
6. Unlike other species, man is not natural; he cannot live in complete isolation.
7. Man can imagine, man can plan, anticipate and produce things is a beautiful manner.
8. Man makes history, but at the same time he creates himself.
9. The first premise of history is the existence of man as a living human being.

4 stages

10. Alienation from the Process of Production

11. Mechanisation => Man => Cog in wheel
12. Work = monotonous, repetitive
13. Working Conditions = Torturous 
14. Alienation from the Product of his labour
o No freedom to produce what he wants to produce
o Does not even know the final shape of product he is making
15. Alienation from Society
o Capitalist law of wages is such - no time to realise his Social nature
16. Alienation from himself 

Marx Concept of Labour

o Man is not animal - He does not work just for satisfaction of his needs
o Work - source of pleasure
o Creative by nature - creates a world around him through his work
o Capitalism dehumanises man 
o Communism - Perfect Freedom - 
1. Freedom from necessities
2. Only then he can do what he wants
3. Freedom in Capitalist society - False Conciseness  

How to end alienation —> Violent overthrow of capitalism and setting up of communism 
Dialectical Materialism
  Acc to M, Human history = Dialectical movement of matter
 Taken from Hegel — 3 laws
 Hegel = Dialectics of Idea
 Marx = Dialectics of matter

Dialectical materialism vs Hobbes Materialism 

 Hobbes - movement of matter - external stimuli 

 Marx - Dialectics is inherent in matter ==> Ext stimuli not required ==> Eg - Contradictions in capitalism - so it will
die naturally 

It is not our own consciousness which determines our existence, it is our existence which determines our
Consciousness

 Represents Marx’s epistemology and ontology 

 Materialist —>  Idea = False consciousness (Tell about Hegel’s theory)
 Criticism of Hegel -Real is Rational - Standing on head if he thinks Idea is real.
 Needs to stand on feet- Matter is real (Tell about historical materialism)
 Marx uses Historical Materialism for scientific understanding of history — Base and superstr model
 — tries to prove that the material structure is the basic structure
 State is executive committee of bourgeoise class.
 Ideas, ideology, religion -> false consciousness
 Religions is opium of masses
 Calls his method scientific - others philosophy

 They should develop True consciousness = Class consciousness 

 Once workers understand the existential reality ==> Class in itself => Class for itself

 Gandhi - Harijans - children of god - false consciousness 

 BR Ambedkar - wanted true consciousness - class consciousness - Depressed classes 

"History of all class hither to existing society is the history of class struggle"

 Pol purpose of Marx = Inspire the working class for revolution 

 Through historical materialism he explains that —> All relations = Relations of Production 
 Marx Theory of class
o 2 classes
 Haves - Exploiters
 Have nots - exploited 
o Relationship => Struggle — No reconciliation
o Diff examples of history to prove his point
 Slaves and masters
 Lords and serfs
  Capitalist and workers
 Dialectic materialism 
o Contradictions among the classes are the basis of progress of history 
o Exploited class - progressive
o Exploiter class - reactionary 
o Negation of negations — Working classes are sure to win 
o So he says - Workers of the world unite. You have nothing to lose but your chains 
 Our view - Marx explanation not scientific - using history to justify his politics 
 Karl Popper - criticised Marx for committing - Guilt of Historicism 

“Our epoch of bourgeoise has simplified class antagonism"

 Advancement of capitalism 
 Capitalism - full of contradictions - dig their own graves 
 As capitalism advances - contradictions become more apparent — illusions about it disappear 

Q-Marx treats individual primarily as a member of a class. Critically examine his views on
Economic man.

 Base and superstructure — all relations are relations of production 

 Real identity of man is — identity of his class
 Real interest with class
 Religion and Nation create False consciousness ==> weaken the class solidarity ==> Proletariat internationalism 
 Description of human nature is Economic 
 So criticised for Economic determinism — wrong to consider the only identity as identity of class
 MN Roy criticises — Facists suppress man in the name of nation and Communists in the name of class. 
o Suppressing the individuality in the name of class.
 Ambedkar: caste not class