Applied BSAF

Plant
Physiolog
y for
Agrofores
 Table of Contents
Table of Contents.................................................................................................................................1
Module 2. II. PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.................................................2
Module 2. II. PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
At the end of the topic, the students must have:
 analyzed the essence of growth of plant
 reiterated the factors in the conduct of life processes

What I Know
1. The expression of an increase in size and weight of a plant.
2. The phase of plant growth where no or slow increase of growth was observe.
3. The term expressing a rest or repose of a seed.
4. It is the ability of differentiated cells to revert to the embryonic state and form
new patterns without an intervening reproductive stage.
. 5. The failure of the seed to germinate due to unfavorable environmental condition
6. Active region of growth.
7. The sum of all the changes that happens to a plant from seed germination to
death of the plant.
8. Primary growth happens in the of the plant.
9. It is responsible in the secondary growth of the plant.
10. It is responsible in resetting the internal biological clock of many plant.
A. GROWTH
Growth - increase in size is commonly measured in one or two directions, e.g. length and diameter of the stem
or fruit, and area and thickness of leaves.
 An increase in dry weight is a more valid indicator of growth than fresh weight because tissues, organs
highly vary in terms of moisture content
 sometimes increase in dry weight is an inadequate indicator of growth, e.g. seeds germinated in the dark
result in lower biomass due to respiratory loss of CO 2 despite the differentiation of the shoot and root
primordia

Phases of Plant Growth

1. Lag - early vegetative growth
 2. Log or exponential: a grand period of growth; the rate of growth is exponential
3. Declining or decreasing: onset of flowering is offset by leaf abscission so the rate of increase
decreases
4. Steady: grain filling and ripening occurs at a steady rate until growth ceases
5. Senescence: characterized by the death of the plant or the plant part

Stages of Plant Development

1. Seedling stage: starts from germination until true leaves are formed.
2. Vegetative stage: consists of the juvenile stage between germination and flowering, characterized
by a progressive increase in the complexity and size of the root system and the foliage including the
increase in the number of branches and twigs.
3. Reproductive stage: occurs when the plant becomes physiologically ready for flowering until the
fruits and seeds mature.

Dormancy: The inability of the seed to germinate due to factors that are inherent in the seed.
Quiescence: The failure of the seed to germinate due to the absence of any essential environmental
requirement for germination.
Germination: The resumption of the active growth of the embryo resulting in the rupture of the seed
coat by the radicle (embryonic root) or by the shoot leading to the emergence of a new plant.

B. Differentiation
Differentiation – it is the change from a generalized for another, specialized form for a tissue, organ, or another
plant part.
 Differentiation starts in the early stage of development during the division of the zygote gives rise
to cells that are destined to become either root or shoot.
 unspecialized parenchyma cells may differentiate into more specialized cells like xylem vessels or
phloem sieve tubes, each with distinct morphology and unique function.
 it is not determined by cell lineage as by cell position concerning neighboring cells.
 though some plant cells are highly differentiated or specialized, it can be stimulated to revert to
embryonic form
 ex. cells isolated from the center of a tobacco stem or a soybean cotyledon and cultured on an
artificial medium may be stimulated to reinitiate cell division, to grow as undifferentiated callus
tissue, and eventually to give rise to a new plant
  cell may reverse the differentiation process and differentiate along a new and different path
 this ability of differentiated cells to revert to the embryonic state and form new patterns without an
intervening reproductive stage is called totipotency.

C. Pattern formation and morphogenesis

Development - is the sum of all of the changes that a cell, tissue, organ, or organism goes through in its life
cycle.
visibly manifested by the changes in form of an organ or organism, such as the transition from embryo to
seedling, from a leaf primordium to a fully expanded leaf, or from the production of vegetative organs to the
production of floral structures.
embryogenesis, vegetative, and reproductive development are the stages of the sporophytic development of
higher plants.
 in embryogenesis, the single-celled zygote organized groups of undetermined cells contained in the
shoot and root apical meristems
 in vegetative growth, indeterminate patterns of growth, dependent on the effect intrinsic programs and
environmental factors give rise to variable shoot and root architecture
 in reproductive development, vegetative shoot apical meristems are reprogrammed to produce a
characteristic series of floral organs, including carpels and stamens, in which the haploid gametophytic
generation begins.

Two patterns of Growth

1. Primary Growth Pattern - increase in the length of root and stem
 the capacity of an organ to grow – determined by the rate of cell division and enlargement
 water uptake leads to cell enlargement
 deposition of polysaccharides in the cell wall leads to cell thickening
 results to elongation of root and stem
 cell division at specific planes and cell expansion at specific directions are caused by selective gene
expression – this leads further to variations in organ shape and function
 Plant meristems - regions where the cells retain the capacity for continued cell division.

Two regions
 Root Apical Meristems – a cluster of dividing cells located at the tip of the root just behind the root cap.
 Root cap – the tip of the root, provides mechanical protection for the meristems as the root grows in an
abrasive medium
Mucigel – lubricant released as root moves through the soil. It is also involved in the perception of
gravity by the root

 as a cell in RAM divides, one of the two daughter cells will be retained to continue cell division
while the second daughter cell proceeds to elongate, thus increasing the length of the root
and pushing the root tip through the soil
 Shoot Apical Meristems - a more complex group of cells that divides in the axis of the shoot
 as the SAM extend and elongate, it must form leaf primordia that give rise to organs like
leaves, branches, and floral parts.

Figure 2. The shoot apical meristems Zeiger, 2002.

 Similar to RAM, each time the cell divides in the SAM, one daughter cell is left behind to
elongate and move the shoot apex forward while the other daughter cell remains in the
meristems to continue dividing.
 Primary tissues - tissues developed from the root and shoot apical meristems

2. Secondary Growth (in woody plants)

Secondary tissues - tissues laid down by the vascular cambium
 all gymnosperms (mostly in dicots; rarely in monocots) exhibit secondary growth
 this occurs in lateral meristems like vascular and cork cambia (singular: cambium)
 vascular cambium – responsible for the secondary growth activity such as the increase in diameter of
aa stem
 the vascular cambium is composed of parenchyma cells (cells that retain their ability to divide) – these
cells divide into two daughter cells wherein one daughter cell differentiates while the other remains
meristematic
 develops between the xylem and phloem.
 produces new xylem toward the inside and the new phloem gives rise toward the outside.
o Xylem – has heavy walls and lignification occur over time, thus a rigid and long-lasting tissue was
formed in the bulk of the woody stems or trunks
o Phloem - more fragile tissue with each year of growth of new cells, previous cells to be pushed
outward and crushed
 xylem cells eventually form what we call “annual growth rings”
  a woody portion of the stem is composed of tracheids, vessel elements, and fibers
 the cork cambium is composed of meristematic cells outside the secondary phloem
 during secondary growth, the epidermis derived from primary growth dries and separates from the
stem
 the cells in the outer cortex (outside the secondary phloem) become meristematic and divide to form
cork cells on the outer perimeter – these cork cells which deposit waxy materials (called suberin) in
their cell walls form the periderm that replaces the epidermis
 the bark of a stem consists of the periderm and phloem

D. Reproductive growth
 plants acquire a characteristic shape or form by correlated growth of component parts (e.g. apical and
lateral buds), that is, the growth from lateral buds can profoundly change plant shape and appearance
 component organs likewise show characteristic shape or form that persists in time and space (e.g. the
shape of the leaves, the length, and breadth of the roots, etc)
 growth correlations are manifested in many ways such as apical dominance, differentiation, harvest
index, shoot-to-root ratio, etc
 growth correlation effects are largely associated with phytohormones, sometimes competition for
growth factors (nutrients, water, radiation)
o endogenous rhythms - these are events or oscillations occurring in plants and are not triggered by
fluctuations of the environment
 the three common rhythms in plants are:
- circadian (every 24 hours),
- infradian (every more than 24 hours) and
- circannual (once a year)
o circadian rhythms – events that are repeatedly occurring every 24 hours (e.g. closing and opening
of leaves and flowers – leaves of Mimosa sp. open during the day and close during the night – this
event persists even if the plant is exposed to continuous darkness

Events or processes under the control of circadian rhythm:

 gene transcription,
 cytosolic Ca level,
  enzyme activities,
 stomatal opening,
 leaf movement,
 hypocotyl expansion, etc.

Phytochromes- blue or bluish-green protein which are light-detecting pigments in the leaves that are
thought to be involved in resetting the internal biological clock of many plants
 phytochromes occur in plants in two interchangeable forms –
- PR which strongly absorbs red light, and
- PFR which absorbs far-red light (almost infrared light)
 in most plants, PFR is the active form of phytochrome
 a suitable concentration of PFR can stimulate or inhibit flowering, it can also reset
the biological clock of the plant
 during the day, leaves contain both PR and PFR because solar radiation consists
of all wavelengths
 during the night, leaves contain mostly PR because PFR breaks down to PR

Reference
1995. Introduction to Plant Physiology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 464 pp.
Alejar, A.A., Ml. Dionisio-Sese, M.E. S. Guzman, and B.T. Mercado. 1998. Laboratory Manual in Elementary
Plant Physiology. UPLB, College, Laguna123 pp.
Alfonso Alejar, A.M. and Ml. Dionisio-Sese. 1999. Fundamentals of Plant Physiology. Metro Manila. Plant
Physiology Society of the Philippines. 166pp
Binkley, D. 1906. Forest nutrition management. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 209 pp.
Hopkins, W.E. 1999. Introduction to Plant Physiology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 512 pp.
Hopkins, W.G., Huner, N.P.A. 2009: Introduction to Plant Physiology, 4th Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
Hoboken, USA.
Magdamo, L.G. 1986. Manual In General Botany. Goodwill Trading Co. Inc
Marchner, H. 1986. Mineral nutrition of higher plants. London: Academic Press. 674 pp.
Mohr, H. and P. Schopter. 1995. Plant Physiology. New York: Springer-Verlag. 629 PP-:
Moore, R., W.D. Clark, and D.S. Vodopich. 1998. Botany. Boston: WCB McGraw-Hill. 919pp.
Muller, W.H. 1979. Botany. A Functional Approach. McMillan Publishing Co. Inc.
Noggle, G.R., and GJ. Fritz. 1983. Introductory Plant Physiology. New Jersey Prentice-Hall. Inc. 627 pp.
SALISBURY, F.B., and ROSS, C.W. 1992: Plant Physiology. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont -
California.
Sis. Agravante, M.D. et.al 1985. General Botany Laboratory Manual and Newbook. Second Edition. Rex.
Bookstore
Strassburger, E. et al. 2008: Lehrbuch der Botanik für Hochschulen. 36. Auflage, G. Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart-
Jena-New York.
Taiz, L. and Zeiger, E. 2002, and 2010: Plant Physiology, 3rd, and 5th Edition. The Benjamin-Cummings
Publishing Company, Redwood City – California

Answer key
1. growth
2. steady
3. dormancy
4. totipotency
5. quiescence
6. tip of shoot and root,
7. development
8. tip or apical meristems,
9. vascular cambium
10. phytochrome
Module 2 Assessment – AF Physiology
Name
email address

What I
Have Learned
Direction: Complete the statement below.
I have learned that

I have realized that

Assessment
A. Direction: Choose the best answer described by the statement. Write only the letter on the space provided.
1. Which of the following is not the indicator of growth.
a. increase in dry weight
b. increase in height
c. length in the diameter of the stem
d. increase in environmental temperature
2. Which of the following is not part of the phase of plant growth.
a. early vegetative growth
b. decomposition of the plant part
c. grain filling and ripening
d. death of the plant
3. The inability of the seed to germinate.
a. germination
b. dormancy
c. quiescence
d. death
4. The resumption of the active growth of the embryo due rupture of the seed and emergence of a new
plant.
a. germination
b. dormancy
c. quiescence
d. death
5. Which of the following is not a feature of differentiation.
a. specialization of the cell
b. lineage of cell position in the neighboring cells
c. elongation of the of the vascular tissue
d. quiescence
6. Which of the following is not a primary growth characteristics.
a. continuous division of cell and enlarge in the root and apical tip
b. deposition of polysaccharide in the cell wall resulting to thickening of the cell
c. formation of annual growth rings
d. formation root cap and buds
7. Which of the following do not indicate secondary growth.
a. division of parenchyma cells into two daughter cell
b. cell divides in the shoot apical meristem
c. production of new xylem
d. formation of bark
 8. Formation of root apical meristem.
a. endogenous rhythm
b. circannual rhythm
c. circadian rhythm
d. none of the above
9. The closing of the leaf at night and opening in day of mimosa plant is an example of
a. endogenous rhythm
b. circannual rhythm
c. circadian rhythm
d. none of the above
10. The production of flower of rambutan plants during October is an example of
a. endogenous rhythm
b. circannual rhythm
c. circadian rhythm
d. none of the above
Module 2 Activity – AF Physiology
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Activity 1:
Parameters of growth

Objective: At the end of the activity the student should be able to:
determine factors that affect the growth of a plant
measure the growth using different parameter

Procedure:
Procure 10 corn seeds. Soak them in water for 24 hours. After soaking, sow the seeds in the soil in a
pot/polyethylene bags. Number the pots. Place 5 plants in a dark room and the rest in a place with sunlight.
Observe them every day for 15 days. Using a ruler, make measurements of growing organs (leaves and stem)
of the plant that emerge. Count all leaves. Measure the length of the leaves and their width. Make a table and
graphs of your observations. Note all your observations in your notebook. After 20 days, harvest the crops and
measure the length of the roots. If there is a weighing scale weigh both groups of plants. In summary, write your
observation.

Ouptut of the exercise:

Table representing the daily observation and measurements.
Discuss the table presented.

Questions:
1. In what set-up does the seed emerged first? Write your observations.
2. In what set-up does a higher growth of the plant was observed. Plants in the dark or plants in sunlight? Why?
3. What are the parameters you used to assess or measure the growth of the plant?

References: