Chapter 4: Oscillations and Waves

GENERAL PHYSICS (PHYS1011)
Chapter 4: Oscillations and Waves
Gizaw Birhanu
Lecture Note Prepared for the Crash Academic Program, August 2021
DBU 2021
Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 1 / 35

Periodic Motion and SHM
Periodic Motion is motion that repeats itself after equal time intervals.
Examples: a mass attached to a spring, the swinging pendulum, etc
Such a motion is called Periodic Motion or Oscillatory Motion.
It occurs whenever a body has a stable equilibrium posiion and a
restoring force that acts when it is displaced from equilibrium.
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If m is given a displacement along the x axis and released, it will
vibrate or oscillate back and forth about the equilibrium position o.
Note that at any instant when the spring has length l + x, there is a
force tending to restore m to its equilibrium position.
According to Hooke’s law this force, called the Restoring Force, is
proportional to the displacement x and is given by:
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FR = −kx
where the subscript R stands for ”restoring force” and where k is the
constant of proportionality often called the spring constant, or force
constant. The negative sign tells that always FR is opposite to x.
By Newton’s second law we have,
d 2 (x)
m = −kx
dt 2
⇒ mẍ + kx = 0
k
⇒ ẍ + x = 0
m
This is a second-order-differential-equation.
This periodic vibrating system is called a simple harmonic oscillator or
linear harmonic oscillator.
This type of oscillatory motion is often called simple harmonic motion
or in short SHM.
When the restoring force FR is directly proportional to the DBU 2021
displacement x from equilibrium, the oscillation is always SHM.

Period, Frequency, Amplitude and Phase
Angle of SHM
The angular frequency of the SHM is given by:

r
k
ω=
m
A graph of x vs t appears as follows.
The amplitude of the motion is the distance A and is the greatest DBU 2021
distance from the equilibrium position.

The period of the motion is the time for one complete oscillation or
vibration (sometimes called a cycle) such as, for example, from
x = +A to x = −A and then back to x = +A again.
If T denotes the period, then:
r
m
T = 2π/ω = 2π
k
The frequency of the motion, denoted by f , is the number of
complete oscillations or cycles per unit time.
We have: r
k
f = ω/2π = 1/2π
m
In the general case, the solution of mẍ + kx = 0 is
x = acosωt + bsinωt
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Where a and b are determined from initial conditions.

(a) Show that the function acosωt
√ + bsinωt can be written as
Acos(ωt − φ), Where: A = a2 + b 2 , and φ = tan−1 (b/a).
(b) Find the amplitude, period and frequency of the function in (a).
Thus,
p acosωt bsinωt
acosωt + bsinωt = a2 + b 2 ( √ +√ )
2
a +b 2 a2 + b 2
p acosωt bsinωt
= a2 + b 2 ( √ +√ )
2
a +b 2 a2 + b 2
p
= a2 + b 2 (cosφcosωt + sinφsinωt)
p
= a2 + b 2 cos(ωt − φ)
= Acos(ωt − φ)
a b b
Where: √ = cosφ; √ = sinφ; tanφ = ; and
2
a +b 2 2
a +b 2 a
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p
A = a2 + b 2
The Phase Angle φ is, therefore,
b
tanφ =
a
The Amplitude, A is therefore,
p
A= a2 + b 2
The Angular frequency ω is given by:
r
k
ω=
m
k
The solution of the DE: ẍ + mx = 0 is
x(t) = acosωt + bsinωt

or:
x(t) = Acos(ωt − φ)
The velocity v is calculated as: ẋ = −Aωsinωt DBU 2021
The acceleration a is calculated as ẍ = −Aω 2 cosωt = −Aω 2 x(t)

Solved Problem
1 A spring of negligible mass and spring constant 0.245N/m, is
attached to a block of mass 5g and is placed on a horizontal
friction-less table, with the suspension point fixed at E. The mass is
pulled away a distance 20cm beyond the equilibrium position O and
released. Find (a) the differential equation and initial conditions, (b)
the position at any time t, and (c) the velocity and acceleration at
any time t; (d) the period and frequency of the motion.
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Given: k = 0.245N/m, x = 20cm, and m = 5gm.
Required (a) the DE and initial conditions, (b) x(t), (c)v (t) and a(t);
(d) T and f
Solution for part (a): When the spring is stretched a distance

x = 0.2m beyond the equilibrium position, the amplitude is
A = 0.2m, and the restoring force is: FR = −kx = −(0.245N/m)x.
Then by Newton’s second law we’ve:
d 2 (x)
m = −(0.245N/m)x
dt 2
⇒ (0.005kg )ẍ + (0.245N/m)x = 0
⇒ ẍ + 49x = 0
is the required DE. And the initial conditions: x(t = 0) = 0.2m and DBU 2021
v (t = 0) = 0
Solution for part (b): the solution for the DE is:
x(t) q q − φ) = acosωt + bsinωt, where:
= Acos(ωt
k 0.245N/m
ω= m = 0.005kg = 7rad/s
Differentiating x(t) = acosωt + bsinωt, wrt t gives
ẋ = −aωsinωt + bωcosωt
Since at t = 0, x(0) = 0.2m = acos0 + bsin0, this implies that
a = 0.2m. Similarly, since at t = 0,
v (t = 0) = 0 = −(0.2)(7)sin0 + (b)(7)cos0 = 0, this implies that
b=0
0
Therefore, tanφ = 0.2 , and φ = 0, and hence:
x(t) = 0.2Cos7t
Solution for part (d): v (t) = ẋ = −1.4Sin7t, and

a(t) = −9.8cos7t = −(49)(0.2Cos7t) = −49x(t)
Solution for part (e): From x = 0.2Cos7t, we see that: DBU 2021
T = 2π/ω = (2π/7)sec; and f = (7/2π)Hz

Energy of a Simple Harmonic Oscillator
If K is the kinetic energy, U the potential energy and E = K + U the
total energy of a simple harmonic oscillator, then we have:
1
K = mv 2
2
1
U = kx 2
2
The total energy E of a simple harmonic oscillator is then calculated
from the conservation of energy principle as:
1 1
E = mv 2 + kx 2 = constant
2 2
As potential energy U increases, kinetic energy K decreases, and
vice-versa. At maximum displacement x = ±A, we have v = 0.
1 DBU 2021
⇒ E = kA2
2
Velocity and Acceleration of SHM
We can obtain the velocity of the block-spring system at an arbitrary
position by expressing the total energy of the system at some
arbitrary position x as: E = 21 mv 2 + 21 kx 2
1 1 1
⇒ mv 2 + kx 2 = kA2
2 2 2
Calculating for the velocity v gives:
r
k 2
v= (A − x 2 )
m
Since the equation of motion is ẍ + kx = 0, then:
k
ẍ = − x
m
⇒ a(x) = −ω02 x DBU 2021
is the acceleration of the SHM.

Maximum Velocity and Acceleration of SHM
As the mass attached to the spring passes through the equilibrium

position, i.e. x = 0:
its velocity is the maximum given by:
r
k
vmax = A ×
m
however, its acceleration, a(0) = −ω 2 (0)) = Zero
= ±A, then:
When the mass is at x q
k 2
the velocity is: v = m (A − A2 ) = Zero
the acceleration is: the maximum given by:
a(x = ±A) = ∓ω02 A DBU 2021

(Left) Several instants in SHM, (Center)The bar graphs show the
distribution of energy at each instant, (Right)The table refer to the DBU 2021
parameters of the system at each instant .

Acceleration in terms of T
Eliminating the quantity k/m between the two equations:
k
a = −( )x
m
and: r
m
T = 2π
k
we find:
4π 2
a=− x
T2
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Example: A 200g mass vibrates horizontally without friction at the end of
a horizontal spring for which k = 7.0N/m. The mass is displaced 5.00cm
from equilibrium and get released.
1 Find its maximum speed.
2 Find its speed when it is displaced 30cm from equilibrium.
3 What is its acceleration in each of these cases?
solution: From conservation law, we have: 12 mv 2 + 12 kx 2 = 12 kA2
Where m = 0.200kg , k = 7.0N/m, and x = 0.050cm. Solving for v gives:
r
k 2
v= (A − x 2 )
m
(a) The speed is maximum when x = 0; that is, when the mass is passing
through the equilibrium position:
r s
k 7.0N/m
vmax = A × = (0.050m) = 0.30m/s
m 0.200kg DBU 2021

Which yields a = 0 when the mass is at x = 0 and a = 1.1m/s 2 when
x = 0.030m
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Exercise Problem
1 The shock absorbers in an old car with mass 1000kg are completely
worn out. When a 980 − N person climbs slowly into the car at its
center of gravity, the car sinks 2.8cm. The car (with the person
aboard) hits a bump, and the car starts oscillating up and down in
SHM. Model the car and person as a single body on a single spring,
and find the period and frequency of the oscillation.
2 In an engine, a piston oscillates with simple harmonic motion so that
its position varies according to the expression: x = 5.00Cos(2t + π/6)
where x is in centimeters and t is in seconds. At t = 0, find (a) the
position of the particle, (b) its velocity, and (c) its acceleration. Find
(d) the period and (e) the amplitude of the motion.
3 A simple harmonic oscillator takes 12.0s to undergo five complete
vibrations. Find (a) the period of its motion, (b) the frequency in
hertz, and (c) the angular frequency in radians per second. DBU 2021

The Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum consists of a mass m at the end of a massless

string or rod of length L, which always remains straight i.e. rigid.
If the mass m, sometimes called the pendulum bob, is pulled aside
and released, the resulting motion will be oscillatory.
The simple pendulum is very nearly undergoes SHM if its angle of
swing is not too large.
The period of vibration for a pendulum of length L at a location
where the gravitational acceleration is g is given by:
s
L
T = 2π
g
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Figure: Calling θ the instantaneous angle which the string makes with the
vertical, the differential equation of motion is: θ̈ + gL sinθ = 0. For small angle θ,
sinθ ' θ, so that the DE can be re-written as: θ̈ + gL θ = 0. This last equation is
the equation of SHM DBU 2021

Wave and Its Characteristics
A wave is a propagating disturbance that moves through a medium
(or vacuum) carrying momentum and energy with it.
Examples are sound waves, wave on a string, seismic waves, and
electromagnetic waves.
Any wave carries energy, but there is no transport of matter with it.
Waves can be periodic or Non-periodic. In a periodic wave, pulses of
the same kind follow one another in regular succession.
In a transverse wave, the particles of the medium move back and
forth perpendicular to the direction of the wave. Waves that travel
down a stretched string when one end is shaken are transverse. Each
particle of the string vibrates perpendicular to the line of propagation.
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In a longitudinal wave, the particles of the medium move back and
forth in the same direction as (that is, parallel to) the direction of
propagation of the disturbance.
Waves that travel down a coil spring when one end is pulled out and
released are longitudinal.
Sound waves are also longitudinal.

From a different perspective, waves are classified also as Mechanical
Wave-that can only propagate in medium, and (2) Electromagnetic
Waves-that can propagate in vacuum.
Sound is a mechanical wave, while light is an Electromagnetic Wave
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Wave Properties
The period T of a wave is the time required for one complete wave to
pass a given point. The frequency f is the number of waves that
pass that point per second, so:
1 1
frequency (f ) = =
period T
The wavelength λ (Greek letter lambda) of a periodic wave is the
distance between adjacent wave crests.
Frequency and wavelength are related to wave velocity by: wave
velocity = (wavelength)(frequency )
v =λ×f
Or:
λ
v=
T
The amplitude A of a wave is the maximum displacement from DBU 2021
equilibrium position.
In a transverse wave, the amplitude is half the distance between the
top of a crest and the bottom of a trough.
The intensity I of a wave is the rate at which it transports energy per
unit area perpendicular to the direction of motion.
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The Speed of a Transverse Wave Along
Stretched String
The speed v of a transverse wave on a stretched spring or wire is:

s
T
v=
µ
Where T is the tension along the string or wire in Newton (N), and µ
is the mass per unit length in kg /m.
Example: A horizontal stretched cord 5.00m long has a mass of
1.45g . What must be the tension in the cord if the wavelength of a
120Hz wave on it is to be 60.0cm?
Solution v = λ × f = (0.60m)(1201/s) = 72.0m/s
q q
×L
From v = Tµ = Tm , we have
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m×v 2 0.00145kg ×(72.0m/s)2
T = L = 5.00m = 1.50N
Sound Waves
Sound waves are longitudinal waves in which alternate regions of

compression and rarefaction move away from a source.
When the compression and rarefaction of the waves strike the
eardrum, they result in the sensation of sound, provided the frequency
of the waves is between about 20Hz and 20, 000Hz.
Waves with frequencies above 20kHz are called Ultrasonic waves.
Those with frequencies below 20Hz are called Infrasonic.
Sound waves can travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
The velocity of sound is a constant for a given material at a given
pressure and temperature; in air at 1 − atm pressure and 20degC , it is
343m/s.
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The deciBell Scale
Sound intensity levels are expressed in deciBels, abbreviated dB.

1
A deciBel is 10 of a Bel.
The Bel is inconveniently large for most purposes, and the deciBel is
the usual unit of sound intensity level. For this reason, the deciBel
(dB) scale is used for sound intensity.
An intensity of I0 = 10−12 W /m2 , which is just audible, is given the
value 0dB; a sound 10 times more intense is given the value 10dB; a
sound 102 times more intense than 0dB is given the value of 20dB; a
sound 103 times more intense than 0dB is given the value of 30dB;
and so forth. An intensity of 1W /m2 corresponds to 120dB.
More formally, the intensity or loudness β of a sound wave whose
intensity is I w /m2 is given by:
I
β = (10dB)log DBU 2021
I0
Sound Intensity Levels from Various Sources
Sound Intensity Levels from Various Sources
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When sound waves spread out uniformly in space, their intensity
decreases inversely with the square of the distance R from their
source.
Thus, if the intensity of a certain sound is I1 at a distance R1 , its
intensity I2 at the distance R2 can be found from:
I2 R2
= 12
I1 R2
Example 1 Consider an idealized bird (treated as a point source) that
emits constant sound power, with intensity obeying the inverse-square
law. If you move twice the distance from the bird, by how many
decibels does the sound intensity level drop?
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Figure: When you double your distance from a point source of sound, by
how much does the sound intensity level decrease?
Example on Sound Intensity Levels
Solution: The decibel scale is logarithmic, so the difference between
two sound intensity levels corresponds to the ratio of the
corresponding intensities, which is determined by the inverse-square
law.
I1
We label the two points and use the equation β1 = (10dB)log and
I0
I2
β2 = (10dB)log , and find the difference between the two..
I0
I2 R2
And then, we use the equation: = 12 , to relate the intensities at
I1 R2
the two points. So,
β2 − β1 = (10dB) × (Log II20 − Log II01 ) = (10dB)Log II21 .
I2 R12
Since I1 = R22
= 1/4, then:
β2 − β1 = (10dB)Log II21 = (10dB)Log 14 = −6.0dB
Our result is negative, which tells us (correctly) that the sound DBU 2021
intensity level is less at P2 than at P1 .

Example 2: A 10-min exposure to 120 − dB sound will temporarily
shift your threshold of hearing at 1000Hz from 0dB up to 28dB. Ten
years of exposure to 92 − dB sound will cause a permanent shift to
28dB. What sound intensities correspond to 28dB and 92dB?
SOLUTION: We are given two sound intensity levels β1 = 28dB and
β2 = 92dB, and asked to calculate their corresponding intensity
values, that are I1 and I2 .
Therefore: β1 = 10dBLog ( II10 ) and β2 = 10dBLog ( II02 )
I1 = I0 × 10β/10dB = 10−12 W /m2 × 102.8 = 6.3 × 10−10 W /m2
I2 = I0 × 10β/10dB = 10−12 W /m2 × 109.2 = 1.6 × 10−3 W /m2
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Resonance
Resonance is the increase in amplitude of oscillation of an electric or

mechanical system exposed to a periodic force whose frequency is
equal or very close to the natural undamped frequency of the system.
Resonance is a phenomenon in which an external force or a vibrating
system forces another system around it to vibrate with greater
amplitude at a specified frequency of operation. The frequency at
which the second body starts oscillating or vibrating at higher
amplitude is called the resonant frequency of the body.
A classic example of resonance is the swinging of a person sitting on
a swing. A swing is a very good example of an object in oscillating
motion.
Initially, the motion is slow and the swing does not extend to its
maximum potential. But once when the swing reaches its natural
frequency, of oscillation, a gentle push to the swing helps it maintain
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that amplitude of swing all throughout due to resonance.

The Doppler Effect
When there is relative motion between a source of wave and an
observer, the apparent frequency of the wave is different from their
frequency fS at the source.
This change in frequency is called the Doppler Effect.
When the source approaches the observer (or vice versa), the
observed frequency is higher; when the source recedes from the
observer (or vice versa), the observed frequency is lower.
In the case of sound waves, the frequency f that a listener hears is
given by:
v + vL
f =( )vS
v − vs
In this formula, v is the velocity of sound, vL is the velocity of the
listener (considered positive for motion toward the source and
negative for motion away from the source), and vS is the velocity of
the source (considered positive for motion toward the listener and DBU 2021
negative for motion away from the listener).

Characteristics of Waves
Reflection of Waves
Whenever a traveling wave reaches a boundary, part or all of the wave
bounces back. This phenomenon (rebounding of wave from a surface)
is called reflection. For example, consider a pulse traveling on a string
that is fixed at one end. When the pulse reaches the wall, it is
reflected.
Refraction of Wave
It is the change in direction of a wave passing from one medium to
another caused by its change in speed. For example, waves in deep
water travel faster than that in shallow.
Diffraction of Wave
It is the spreading of waves around obstacles.
Interference of Wave
It is the net effect of the combination of two or more wave trains
moving on intersecting or coincident paths. The effect is that of the DBU 2021
addition of the amplitudes of the individual waves at each point

affected by more than one wave.

Chapter 4: Oscillations and Waves

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Chapter 4: Oscillations and Waves

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GENERAL PHYSICS (PHYS1011)

Chapter 4: Oscillations and Waves

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 1 / 35

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 2 / 35

displacement x from equilibrium, the oscillation is always SHM.

The angular frequency of the SHM is given by:

distance from the equilibrium position.

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 5 / 35

Where a and b are determined from initial conditions.

x(t) = acosωt + bsinωt

The acceleration a is calculated as ẍ = −Aω 2 cosωt = −Aω 2 x(t)

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 9 / 35

Solution for part (a): When the spring is stretched a distance

Solution for part (d): v (t) = ẋ = −1.4Sin7t, and

T = 2π/ω = (2π/7)sec; and f = (7/2π)Hz

⇒ a(x) = −ω02 x DBU 2021

is the acceleration of the SHM.

As the mass attached to the spring passes through the equilibrium

however, its acceleration, a(0) = −ω 2 (0)) = Zero

the acceleration is: the maximum given by:

a(x = ±A) = ∓ω02 A DBU 2021

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 14 / 35

parameters of the system at each instant .

Eliminating the quantity k/m between the two equations:

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 16 / 35

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 17 / 35

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 18 / 35

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 19 / 35

A simple pendulum consists of a mass m at the end of a massless

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 20 / 35

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 21 / 35

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 22 / 35

Sound waves are also longitudinal.

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 23 / 35

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 25 / 35

The speed v of a transverse wave on a stretched spring or wire is:

Sound waves are longitudinal waves in which alternate regions of

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 27 / 35

Sound intensity levels are expressed in deciBels, abbreviated dB.

Sound Intensity Levels from Various Sources

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 29 / 35

intensity level is less at P2 than at P1 .

I1 = I0 × 10β/10dB = 10−12 W /m2 × 102.8 = 6.3 × 10−10 W /m2

I2 = I0 × 10β/10dB = 10−12 W /m2 × 109.2 = 1.6 × 10−3 W /m2

Gizaw B. (DBU) General Physics DBU-2021 32 / 35

Resonance is the increase in amplitude of oscillation of an electric or

that amplitude of swing all throughout due to resonance.

negative for motion away from the listener).

addition of the amplitudes of the individual waves at each point

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