Basics in Critical Thinking, Reading, and Writing

Athabasca University

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PHIL :152 Assignment 1 Course Outline Log Entries

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Saturday, December 5, 1998.

Course Outline Log Entries

(click on this link to download the Word File)

1. Three Step Method for Critical 22. Persuasion and Argumentation

Thinking
persuasion is a purpose for writing to
Observation and reading- change someone’s view on a subject and
Critical thinkers must be great at argumentation as a type of persuasion that
observing, including being able to relies on reason or logic typically with the
observe throughout reading literature. authors beliefs. An argument is a group of
The reader must be able to observe what statements that consists of the reasons put
the writer is saying in the passage, and forward in support of an opinion or
how the writer is saying what they controversial claim
mean. A great way to observe and
understand what point the writer is
attempting to get across is being able to
reread the literature in order to have a
clear understanding.

Analysis- After observing and reading

the literature, the next step is to analyze.
This includes breaking down the
information and examining for main
ideas, supporting details, patterns, and
organization. Analysis includes finding
facts, opinions, arguments, assumptions
and implications of the content of the
literature.

Evaluation- The third step in critical

thinking, using reasoning to evaluate the
analyzed content of the literature.
Evaluation allows the reader to judge
the arguments and ideas found and
understood in the content of literature.

2. Directional Words 23. Summaries

Analyze- break idea into parts
Compare- show similarities
between ideas
Define- write synonym or
meaning Describe-make a work picture
Discuss- use main ideas and
Examples
In paraphrasing, you are simply putting
the passage into your own words, but in a
summary you analyse the content, then
organize and present the key ideas,
accurately portraying the relationships
among them.
 Draw- sketch or draw clearly
Evaluate- judge or criticize
Explain- teach or show with
reasons
Identify-name
Interpret- give insights into an Idea
List- make short phrases of steps
Summarize- condense and give
overview
3. Three Point Focus
1.) What is the author’s purpose?
2.) What is the topic or subject
matter?
3.) What is the main or controlling idea
of the passage?
Legitimate Paraphrasing
-Refers to the author in the paraphrasing
-Analyzes the content
-Not all of the details from the original
passage are in the paraphrased content
Illegitimate Paraphrasing
-Citations are not used throughout
-Most sentences are not substituting
phrases for other phrases
-using the original writer’s work
24. Academic Integrity and Essay
Documentation
plagiarism, which is the uncredited use
(both intentional and unintentional) of
somebody else's words or ideas.
document any words, ideas, or other
productions that originate somewhere
outside of you.
-what needs to be credited or
documented
* Words or ideas presented in a
magazine, book, newspaper, song, TV
program, movie, website, computer
program, letter, advertisement, or any
other medium
* Information you gain through
interviewing or conversing with another
person, face to face, over the phone, or in
writing
*When you copy the exact words or a
unique phrase
*When you reprint any diagrams,
illustrations, charts, pictures, or other
visual materials
*When you reuse or repost any digital
media, including images, audio, video, or
other media
 https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writin
g/ index.html
4. Author’s Purpose 25. Essay Documentation MLA

Persuade 1.) citation of a journal article

Evoke emotion (laugh, cry)
Description Author. Title. Title of container (self
Narration contained if book), Other contributors
exposition (translators or editors), Version (edition),
Number (vol. and/or no.), Publisher,
Publisher Date, Location (pp.). 2nd
container’s title, Other contributors,
Version, Number, Publisher, Pub date,
Location (pp.).

2.) citation of a book

Last Name, First Name. Title of Book.

City of Publication, Publisher, Publication
Date.

3.) citation of an e-book

Citations for e-books closely resemble

those for physical books. Simply indicate
that the book in question is an e-book by
putting the term "e-book" in the "version"
slot of the MLA template (i.e., after the
author, the title of the source, the title of
the container, and the names of any other
contributors)

4)in-text citation of both a direct

quotation and a paraphrased idea in an
essay
Provide the author and specific page
number (in the case of verse, provide line
numbers) in the in-text citation, and
include a complete reference on the
Works Cited page.
Punctuation marks such as periods,
commas, and semicolons should appear
after the parenthetical citation

Paraphrase (last name, page).


5. Guidelines for Formulating the Main
Idea
First step- Reading the passage,
identifying the topic and the
author’s purpose
- develop a hypothesis of the
main idea
-check the original hypothesis
- The main idea should be
expressed as clearly and concise
in one sentence.
- identify if the main idea is
too broad or too narrow, and
revamp as necessary.
Always begin by writing the
main idea in your own words,
then check your statement
against a key or topic
sentence, or a thesis statement
you have
6. Reading Inventory Method
Title
What can I infer from the title of the
essay?
What do I think is the author’s
5.) a reference page in an essay.
Work Cited at top. Numbered the same as
rest of essay (Last Name Page Number)
Hanging indent one inch. References in
alphabetical order.
26. Editing Checklist
*Have you addressed the task that was
set for the assignment? (Log Entry 2)
*Is your main idea clear? (Log Entry
3)
*Have you been true to the purpose
you established? (Log Entries 3 and 4)
*Is every sentence complete? (Log
Entry 8)
*Have you used a variety of sentence
types and used coordination and
subordination effectively? (Log Entries
9 and 10)
*Have you used appropriate transitions
to connect related ideas? (Log Entry
12)
* Have you used punctuation correctly
and in ways that enhance
communication of your ideas? (Log
Entry 14)
* Are your terms clear? Have you
provided context clues for your readers
as necessary? (Log Entry 15)
* Are the supporting details you chose
appropriate to the function of your
composition? (Log Entries 16 and 17)
* Have you chosen an appropriate
rhetorical method, or combination of
methods? (Log Entries 19-22)
*Have you organized your ideas
effectively? (Log Entries 18-22)
27. Argument
-made to address a specific problem, by
offering a position and providing
reasoning
for the position
-One or more premise
 audience? -A conclusion
What is the main purpose of the essay? Premise- prove the reasons the person has
Synopsis for thinking that the conclusion is true
What is the general subject of the essay?
What is the author’s approach to the Evaluate- decide if the premise is accurate
subject? and is the premise logical and related to
Biography the conclusion.
What do I know about the author’s age,
political stance, and general beliefs? Identifying the Number of Premises and Conclusions
How qualified is the author to write on
the subject? When did the author write Transitions Signaling Addition
the essay? Under what conditions? and also in addition first
In what context? Content Where was the
essay first published? What would I like moreover then similarly second
to learn from this topic? What are some
of my opinions on this subject? Furthermor next as well Third
Reading e
What are the essay’s main ideas? What Identifying Opposing Arguments
words do I need to look up? What are
Transitions Signaling Contrast
my initial reactions to the ideas in this
essay? but unlike in contrast
Rereading
How does the author achieve his/her On the Instead of however
purpose in the essay? other hand
What assumptions underlie the author’s
reasoning? Do I have a solid interpretive
understanding of this essay?
7. SQ4R Method 28. Facts and Opinions
Facts- evidence that actually exists,
Survey reality, truth.
Empirical
Take place before and get comfortable
and ready to read. Opinions- subjective view or judgment
formed. Opinions cannot be proven by
Make you aware, view the number of empirical observation Facts can be proven
pages, images, and graphs true or false, but opinions cannot.

Read
From strong literal understanding of the
passage on hand

Topic sentences and author’s main ideas

Recite

Summarize, recite topic, purpose, and

 main idea

Review

Second look

Reflect

Think critically of there contradictions

connection
8. Core Parts of the Sentence
Subject-simple subject (person,
place, or thing)
Verb- express an action
Object- noun that completes the
verb and helps the reader to
make sense of the action the verb
describes
29. Assumptions/Hidden Assumptions and
Inference
-assumptions sometimes cause
misunderstandings and can lead us to
reach conclusions too quickly.
-stumbling blocks to critical thinking.
-Assess whether an assumption is
warranted (reasonable) or unwarranted
(unreasonable)
-unconscious and may not be explicitly
expressed.
When assumptions form the basis of
reasoning and are unstated they are called
hidden or implicit assumptions.
An implicit premise is what is assumed or
is taken to be true given the conclusion
and other supporting evidence that is
provided.

The important connection between

implicit premises and assumptions is that
a hidden or implicit assumption might
turn out to be a premise in an argument.
    30. Evaluating Premises
Determining Truth/Falsity

when evaluating premises, we judge

whether or not to accept the premises
based on whether they are true or
acceptable and whether they provide
support for the conclusion.

- claims about aesthetics (beauty), ethics

(right/wrong), and claims that express
 general beliefs about value, such as what
is good/bad or just/unjust.

Determining Acceptability

Two main ways to evaluate the

acceptability of a claim if its truth cannot
be determined with certainty: 1) decide
whether the claim is plausible; 2) decide
whether the claim is probable.

Checklist for Determining

Acceptability

Claims that are true or false but cannot be

verified or disproven.

Are they plausible?

How probable are they?
Claims involving judgements about
aesthetics and ethics.

Determine reasonable and defensible

general principles or standards for
assessing acceptability.
Claims involving universal
generalizations and conditional
statements.

Can doubt be cast on these statements?

For example:
Are all cases of lying wrong?
If an insecticide program is instituted, will
the mosquito problem be solved?

Check List for Determining

Truth/Falsity
1. Can the truth be verified through
observation?
2. Can a counterexample be provided to
disprove a universal generalization?
9. Coordination 31. Relevance
And
Or To evaluate the relevance of a premise
Nor you must understand what the argument is
But about
 For -Find the meaning relevance.
Yet Premise X + Y = Conclusion
-Irrelevant premise- a premise offered as
connect two or more ideas of part
equal importance of the argument but has no relationship to
the conclusion
10. Subordination 32. Deductive Arguments
It implies a relationship between
the subordinate item(inferior) and Deductive arguments can establish the
something superior or above it in rank truth of their conclusions beyond the
or importance shadow of a doubt

-conclusively proves its conclusion

Subordinate Conjunctions - if both premises are true, the conclusion
after even if So that when must be true
althoug even than whenev
h though er
as if that where
as if in order though wherev
that er
as in unless whether
though which
because rather until while
than
before since
11. Deciphering Complicated Sentences 33. Inductive Arguments

The key to understanding a complicated - inductive arguments can only make it

sentence is to unravel it: identifying its
core parts and analysing how each
phrase modifies the meaning of the
core.
more or less reasonable to accept the
conclusion.
is as good as it can be, the conclusion is
still only likely and can may even turn out
to be false.

premise only provides a degree of support

for the conclusion

Evaluating Inductive Arguments

Definition of validity: If the conclusion of

a deductive argument follows from its
premises, the argument is said to be valid.
If not, it is said to be invalid.
12. Transitions 34. Evaluating the Relationship Between
Transitions signaling addition Premises and Conclusions

and also in addition Relevance

The truth or acceptability of that premise
moreover then similarly
must matter in how we evaluate the
furthermor next as well conclusion of the argument. Take away
e the premise. And the conclusion no longer
Other transitions may signal a makes sense the premise is related.
contrast between ideas:
Transition Signaling Contrasts Necessity
the standards of necessity and sufficiency
but unlike in contrast identify the kind of connection that
premises bear in relation to their
On the instead of however conclusions.
other hand
Transitions may also be used to signal an In deductive arguments that, if the
explanation of ideas: premises are true, then the conclusion
Transitions signaling Explanations “necessarily” follows.
-there is a necessary connection between
now in this case in fact
the premises and conclusions if the
premises are true.
For thus such
-The premises in inductive arguments can
instance
also be necessary, in the sense that a
that is
premise or premises are needed or
And, transitions may be used to required to draw the conclusion
conclude ideas: -you cannot reach the conclusion without
Transitions Signaling Conclusions them.

Therefore As a result Consequen

tly
Accordingl To sum Finally
y, up
In At last So
conclusion
Thus Hence

13. Implicit Connectives 35. Evaluating Language

-look at where the sentences occur
together. Consider the context of the
passage in which they appear and think
about how the ideas might be related
Clarity- Easy to draw conclusions. The
importance of being precise and clear
Neutral Language: unbiased grounded in
facts and evidence and free from value
judgments
 - use what you may already
know about the topic as an aid in
determining the relationship between
the ideas.
- try to insert a connective between the
two sentences that seem to contain
related events.
Ask yourself whether the new
sentence makes sense and
accurately reflects the author’s
position
14. Punctuation
“The Comma.”
Introductory Use
Use in Subordinate or Coordinate
Sentences
Parenthetical Use
Serial Use
Semicolon
The primary use of the semicolon is to
separate two closely related ideas that
have been combined into a single
sentence.
Colon
The colon is most often used to
introduce a list, a statement, or a
quotation. The colon tells the reader that
additional information, which further
explains the main idea of the sentence
The Dash
The dash is most commonly used to
separate unessential or parenthetical
elements in a sentence from the core
sentence, when using a comma would
be
confusing or when emphasis is desired.
This usage also assists the reader in
Vagueness/Ambiguity- not giving
enough
information to become misleading to the
reader. More than one meaning depending
on who’s side you are on.
Loaded language- wording that attempts
to influence an audience by using appeal
to emotion or stereotypes Some phrases
can have positive or negative
connotations
36. Source: Bias/Prejudice
Bias and prejudice refer to attitudes or
points of view that are one sided or
slanted in some way. They often have an
emotional basis, and they are held without
due consideration of the facts or involve
errors in reasoning.
Bias refers to a positive or negative
inclination while prejudice generally
refers to a negative attitude.
Checklist for Bias and Prejudice
1. expresses positive or negative
judgements without providing
evidence to support them
2. expresses positive or negative
judgements, fails to provide support
for those judgements and personally
benefits from them
3. presents a position on an issue and
fails to consider whether the arguments
presented are good ones
4. presents a position on an issue but
fails to consider whether there are
good opposing arguments to their
position
5. treats their own subjective emotional
reactions to an issue as if they were
objective facts
6. treats controversial value judgements
as if they are obvious or universally
 separating core parts from supporting
information.
15. Context Clues
Punctuation cues such as colons, dashes,
or commas may signal a definition
authors simply tell you the definition of
new word. In these cases bold or italic
print may be a visual cue.
Synonyms, used within the same
sentence or in close proximity to the
unfamiliar word, provide insight into its
meaning.
Some signal words (for example: or,
like, that is, such as) may draw our
attention to Synonyms or definitions.
Referent words include: this,
that, some, many, few, these,
those, they, such.
16. Generating Ideas
agreed-on
37. Fallacies
A fallacy is a faulty argument that tends
to persuade when it should not and often
involves some trick or form of deception.
-Arguments that involve appealing to an
irrelevant source
-Arguments that involve the application
of irrelevant standards
-Arguments that are off topic or introduce
elements that are irrelevant to the
argument
Three fallacies that fall under distraction
slippery slope
a relatively small first step leads to a
chain of related events ending in some
significantly large effect.
Straw man
The name is derived from the idea that a
straw dummy is easier to knock down
than a real person. Often the author
attempts, not only to refute a position in
opposition to her own, but to use this
refutation to establish her own position as
well.
False Dilemma- occurs when the author
presents an argument that introduces two
options or alternatives to a situation when
there are more than two choices available.
Usually, one of the options is undesirable,
which distracts the reader from
recognizing that the author has not
provided all the possible options
available.
38. Essay Structure
 Brainstorming- write own words
and phrases that occur to you until they
begin to fall into logical subdivisions, or
until you stop generating new ideas.
Freewriting- writing to discover
what you want to say. Write about what
you are seeing, feeling, touching,
thinking; Just keep writing until you
have a central idea
Journal Entries- write notes, interests,
articles, the possibilities are endless.
Direct Questions this technique
involves asking a series of questions
useful in any writing situation to
generate ideas, arrange thoughts, or
revise prose
An essay has different topics and purposes,
they all share a similar structure. Essay
structures mean the way the essay looks on
the page and the specific paragraphs used
to create that look. Essay is made up of
several paragraphs. It is easy to identify
where a new paragraph begins because
they are indented.
The paragraphs that make up any essay fall
into three categories:
-introduction
- body
-conclusion.

Clustering- drawing or mapping

your ideas as fast as they come
into your mind.

17. Writing Functions    

-Description: paints a verbal

picture
- Exposition: explains an idea or
Process (process analysis,
example and detail, division and
classification, definition,
comparison and contrast, cause
and effect)
- Persuasion: states a point of view and
involves argumentation
- Narration: relates to a happening or
event and each part contributes to the
story line

18. Mapping and Outlining    

Mapping
 - Make visual relationships
between ideas presented (spatial
placement, small drawings,
cues)
- Indicate the order in which the
ideas occur in a reading
- Method used to discover why
the writer presented ideas as
they did
- Consists of words and arrows or
lines.

Outlining
Linear method to discovering
organizational patterns. An outline uses
a combination of lettering, numbering,
and indenting to show the organization
of ideas. At its most formal, it follows a
reading, paragraph by, using Roman
numerals (I, II, III) for main ideas,
capital letters (A, B, C) for main
supporting details or example that
expand on these supporting ideas.

19. Description    

-the act of capturing people,

places, events, objects, and
feelings in words so that a reader
can visualize and respond to
them.
- Suspends objects in time
- No action or time
- Primary form of self-expression
creates verbal images
- Process of showing, not telling
- Experience through senses
20. Narration    

-Narration involves telling a story

that is
often based on personal experience.
 Narration extends the exciting portions
of a story.

Can be oral, written, real, or

imaginary
21. Exposition    

In fulfilling the function of

explaining, a writer may choose
a number of development
methods.

six different methods:

 process analysis
 the use of examples and
details
 division and classification
 Definition
 comparison and contrast
 cause and effect.
Sub Process Analysis    
topics careful, step-by-step thinking
Entry Chronological
21 Simultaneous
Cyclical
Example and Detail    

Well chosen examples and

illustrations
supplying concrete details
Division and Classification    

-The basic feature of process

analysis, moves from a general concept
to subdivision of that concept or from a
single category to multiple
subcategories

classification works oppositely

Definition    

- Is explaining a word, object, or idea in

such a way that is concrete to reader
Comparison and Contrast    
-Allows us to understand one subject by
putting it next to another for relative
understanding
Methods of Organization for    
Comparison/Contrast

-Point by point, subject by

subject, combination,
similarities/differences- you need to find
the pattern that is best suited for you.
Summarizes the main points and states
the deductions drawn from those
points
Cause and Effect    

-Requires the ability to look for

connections between different
elements and to analyze the
reasons for those connections