Ancient History of India and Punjab

Pre-Historic Age

Stone Age Culture constitutes earliest phase of human civilization. The whole
Stone Age culture is divided into three categories.

• Paleolithic age (Old Stone Age)

• Mesolithic age (Middle Stone Age)
• Neolithic age (New Stone Age)

Paleolithic age: Quartzite men.Its people were hunters and food gathers. They did not
know the use of metals nor could cultivate land. Humans used unpolished, rough stones
like hand axes, choppers, blades, burins and scrapers. One of the earliest lower
Palaeolithic sites is Bori in Maharashtra. Bhimbetka caves (Madhya Pradesh).There has
been a large number of sites discovered in Punjab after independence relating to
Paleolithic age: Hoshiarpur, Daulatapur, Dholbaha, Dhermajra, Dhang, Dadhi,
Merhanwala, Nalagarh, Pirthan, Khokra-Ka-choa, Bhud, Rampura and Sirsa.

Mesolithic age: The Mesolithic age in India is characterized by the manufacture of

smaller, finer, and more varied flake tools. Domesticated animals and cultivated
plants. However no site in Punjab has so far been discovered of this age. Bagor in
Rajasthan and Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh bear the earliest evidences of
domestication of animals.

Neolithic age: It was during this age that the man extensively practised the art of
agriculture and domestication of animals. He started manufacturing earthen jars to
preserve the surplus stock of food. Man learnt to produce fire, build houses of clay,
canes and straw. He also learnt to manufacture cloth with the fibre of plants and the hair
of animals. In 1963, some polished stone related to Neolithic culture were discovered
at Ror and Dibbar in Beas- banganga valley. Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan) -
cultivated crops like cotton and wheat, Burzahom (Kashmir) – domestic dogs were
buried along with their masters ,Koldihwa and Mahagara (lying south of Allahabad)
– oldest evidence of rice.

Chalcolithic Age (Stone Copper Age): The first metal to be used was copper. The
chalcolithic age largely applied to the pre-Harappan phase, but in many parts of the
country, it appears after the end of the bronze Harappan culture. The people living in
the stone age were characterised by rural settlements and were not acquainted with
burnt bricks, used different types of pottery, venerated the Mother Goddess.A
chalcolithic settlement has been found near Chandigarh.
 Harappan civilization:

• The Harappan civilization belongs to Bronze Age period, a well-developed

civilization which existed before the Aryans in Punjab around 2500 B.C-
1750 B.C. The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient
urban civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India and China. In 1924, John
Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new
civilisation in the Indus valley to the world.

Important Sites of IVC

Site Excavated Location Important

by Findings

Harappa Daya Ram Situated on ▪ Sandstone

Sahini in the bank of statues of
1921 river Ravi in Human
Montgomery anatomy
district of
▪ Granaries
Punjab
(Pakistan). ▪ Bullock
carts

Mohenjodaro R.D Situated on ▪ Great bath

(Mound of Banerjee the Bank of
▪ Granary
Dead) in 1922 river Indus in
Larkana ▪ Bronze
district of dancing
Punjab girl
(Pakistan).
▪ Seal of
Pasupathi
Mahadeva
▪ Steatite
statue of
beard man
▪ A piece of
woven
cotton
Sutkagendor Stein in In ▪ A trade
1929 southwestern point
Balochistan between
province, Harappa
Pakistan on and
Dast river Babylon

Chanhudaro N.G Sindh on the ▪ Bead

Majumdar Indus river makers
in 1931 shop
▪ Footprint
of a dog
chasing a
cat

Amri N.G On the bank ▪ Antelope

Majumdar of Indus river evidence
in 1935

Kalibangan Ghose in Rajasthan on ▪ Fire altar

1953 the bank of
▪ Camel
Ghaggar
bones
river
▪ Wooden
plough

Lothal R.Rao in Gujarat on ▪ First

1953 Bhogva river manmade
near Gulf of port
Cambay
▪ Dockyard
▪ Rice husk
▪ Fire altars
▪ Chess
playing

Surkotada J.P Joshi Gujarat ▪ Bones of

in 1964 horses
▪ Beads
Banawali R.S Bisht Hisar district ▪ Beads
in 1974 of Haryana
▪ Barley
▪ Evidence
of both
pre-
Harappan
and
Harappan
culture

Dholavira R.S Bisht Gujarat in ▪ Water

in 1985 Rann of harnessin
Kachchh g system
▪ Water
reservoir

Geographically, it extended from Sutkagendor (in Baluchistan) in the West to

Alamgirpur (Western UP) in the East; and from Mandu (Jammu) in the North to
Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South. Some Indus Valley sites have
also been found as far away as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.

In India:

 Kalibangan (Rajasthan)
 Lothal, Dholavira, Rangpur, Surkotda (Gujarat)
 Banawali (Haryana)
 Ropar (Punjab)
 In Pakistan: Harappa (on river Ravi), Mohenjodaro (on Indus River in
Sindh), Chanhudaro (in Sindh).

The walls of baked brick were built around each part. In some cities,
special buildings were constructed on the citadel. For example, in
Mohenjodaro, a very special tank, the Great Bath, was built in this area.

Houses, drains and streets

Most houses had a grid system, separate bathing area and some had
wells to supply water. Many cities had covered drains.

Life in the city

o The Indus Valley cities show a level of sophistication and

advancement not seen in other contemporary civilizations.
o Most cities had similar patterns. There were two parts: a
citadel and the lower town.
o There were also granaries, 2-storied houses made of burnt
bricks, closed drainage lines and wastewater management
system, weights for measurements, toys, pots, etc.
o Agriculture was the most important occupation. The first
civilization to cultivate cotton.
o Animals were domesticated like sheep, goats, and pigs.
o Crops were wheat, barley, cotton, ragi, dates, and peas.
o Metal products were produced including those with copper,
bronze, tin, and lead. Gold and silver were also known. Iron
was not known to them.
o Trade was conducted with the Sumerians.
o No structures like temples or palaces have been
found.Civilization also was advanced in making artworks.
‘Dancing Girl’ and ‘bearded Priest-King’ have been found
from Mohenjodaro.
o Disposal of the dead was by burial in wooden coffins.
o The Indus Valley script has not yet been deciphered.
o Economy was based on Barter system.
o Religion- Mother goddess, Pashupati Mahadev (three horned
heads, represented in the sitting posture of a yogi surrounded by an
elephant, a tiger, a rhinoceros, and has a buffalo below his throne. At his
feet appear two deer). They also worshipped trees and Animals.

Seals from Indus Valley Civilization

o They were mostly made of steatite (a kind of soft stone).

o Purpose of the seals: chiefly commercial, also in the form of
amulets, perhaps as identity cards.
o Every seal has a picture of an animal and some writings in a
pictographic script (which is not yet deciphered).
o Animals represented include tigers, bulls, elephants, goats,
bison, etc. The most famous seal is the Pashupati Seal.
Beads and ornaments

Ornaments worn by men and women: fillets, necklaces, finger-

rings, armlets.
Cemetery found in Farmana (Haryana) – where dead bodies were buried
with ornaments.
Bead factories at Lothal and Chanhudaro.

Important Indus valley civilization sites in Punjab:

• Rupnagar on the bank of Satluj by Y.D. Sharma during 1952-53.

• Kotla Nihang Khan (Rupnagar) was discovered in 1929 and Dher Majra
(Rupnagar) or Bikhun lies at 8 km north east of rupnagar.
• Bara (Rupnagar).
• Rohira (Sangrur).
• Sanghol (Fatehgarh sahib).
• Sunet (Ludhiana).

Vedic Age (1500 BC and 600 BC)

 • Meaning of the word Arya: Noble. They lead a rural, semi-nomadic life as compared
to the Indus Valley people who were urbanised.
• The appearance of the Aryans on the soil of India about 1500 B.C. seems to have
coincided with the destruction of great Indus cities. They seem to have descended
India from the North West (Khyber Pass).
• Vedas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Bhagwad gita were composed during this
period.

Initially, the Aryans lived in the land known as “Sapta Sindhu” (Land of Seven Rivers).
Political structure:

• Monarchical government with a king known as Rajan.

• Patriarchal families.
• Tribal assemblies were called Sabhas and Samitis.

Social structure:

• Women enjoyed a respectable position. They were allowed to take part in

Sabhas and Samitis. There were women poets too (Apala, Lopamudra,
Viswavara and Ghosa).
• Cattle especially cows became very important.
• There was no child marriage.
• Social distinctions existed but were not rigid and hereditary.

Economic structure:

• They were pastoral and cattle-rearing people.

• They practised agriculture.
• They had horse chariots.
• Rivers were used for transport.
• Cotton and woollen fabrics were spun and used.
• Initially, trade was conducted through the barter system but later on, coins called
‘nishka’ were in use.

Religion:

• They worshipped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder, etc. by
personifying them into deities.
• Indra (thunder) was the most important deity. Other deities were Prithvi (earth),
Agni (fire), Varuna (rain) and Vayu (wind).
 • Female deities were Ushas and Aditi.
• No temples and no idol worship.

Later Vedic Period or Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000 BC – 600 BC)
During this time, the Aryans moved eastwards and occupied western and eastern UP
(Kosala) and Bihar.
Political structure:

• Mahajanapadas were formed by amalgamating smaller kingdoms.

• King’s power increased.Sacrifices were Rajasuya (consecration ceremony),
Vajapeya (chariot race) and Ashwamedha (horse sacrifice).
• The Sabhas and Samitis diminished in importance.

Social structure:

• The Varna system became more rigid, based on occupation and more hereditary.
• The four divisions of society in decreasing social ranking were: Brahmanas
(priests), Kshatriyas (rulers), Vaishyas (agriculturists, traders and artisans), and
Shudras (servers of the upper three classes).
• The position of women in society diminished.
• Child marriages became common.

Economic structure:

• Agriculture was the chief occupation.

• Industrial work like metalwork, pottery and carpentry work also was there.
• There was foreign trade with far off regions like Babylon and Sumeria.

Religion:

• Prajapati (creator) and Vishnu (preserver) became important gods.

• Indra and Agni lost their significance.
• Rituals and sacrifices became more elaborate.
• The priestly class became very powerful .

Vedic Literature

• The four Vedas are: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.

 • Rig Veda was composed during the Early Vedic Age. The other three were
written in the Later Vedic Age.
• Rig Veda – this is the oldest religious text in the world. Yajur Veda – this deals
with the ways to perform rituals.
• Sama Veda – deals with music. Indian music is said to be originated from Sama
Veda.
• Atharva Veda – contains spells and magical formula.

In due course of time Vedic religion had become complicated due to superstitious
rituals. The people of Punjab got more influenced by Buddhism and Jainism which led
to the weakening of Aryans.
JAINISM AND BUDDHISM
Jainism Origin

Jainism came into prominence in 6th century B.C., when Lord Mahavira propagated the
religion.There were 24 great teachers, the last of whom was Lord Mahavira.These
twenty-four teachers were called Tirthankaras-people who had attained all knowledge
(Moksha) while living and preached it to the people.The first Tirthankara
was Rishabnatha.The word ‘Jain’ is derived from jina or jaina which means
the ‘Conqueror’.

Cause of Origin

• Hinduism had become rigid and complex with dominance of Brahmanas.

• Varna system.

Tenets of Jainism

• Belief in God
• Transmigration of the soul and the theory of Karma.
• Anekantavada: Emphasises that the ultimate truth and reality is complex, and
has multiple-aspects i.e theory of plurality.
• Syadvada: All judgments are conditional, holding good only in certain conditions,
circumstances, or senses.

It can be attained through three principles called Three Jewels or Triratna i.e.

• Right Faith (Samyakdarshana)

• Right Knowledge (Samyakjnana)
• Right Action (Samyakcharita)

Five Doctrines of Jainism

• Ahimsa: Non-injury to a living being

• Satya: Do not speak a lie
• Asteya: Do not steal
• Aparigraha: Do not acquire property
• Brahmacharya: Observe continence (added by Mahavira).
Vardhamana Mahavira

• Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, was born in 540 B.C. in a village
called Kundagrama near Vaishali.
• He belonged to the Jnatrika clan and was connected to the royal family of
Magadha.
• His father Siddharta was the head of the Jnathrika Kshatriya clan and his
mother Trishala was a sister of Chetaka, the king of Vaishali.
• Wife – Yashoda, daughter – Priyadarshana, son-in-law- Jamali (Mahavir’s
first disciple).
• At the age of 30 years, he renounced his home and become an ascetic.
• He practised austerity for 12 years and attained the highest spiritual knowledge
called Kaivalya (i.e conquered misery and happiness) at the age of 42 years.
• He delivered his first sermon at Pava.
• A symbol was associated with every Tirthankara and Mahavira’s symbol was
a lion.
• He passed away at the age of 72 in 468 B.C. at the Pavapuri in Bihar.

Sects/ School

Two major sects: Digambara (nudity and all 5 vows) and Svetambara (white clad and
follow all vows except Brahmacharya). The division occurred mainly due to famine in
Magadha which compelled a group led by Bhadrabahu to move South India.

During the 12 years famine, the group in South India stick to the strict practices while
the group in Magadha (led by Sthulbhadra)adopted a more lax attitude and started
wearing white clothes.

After the end of famine, when the Southern group came back to Magadha, the changed
practices led to the division of Jainism into two sects.

Spread of Jainism

Admitted both men and women.

The great Mauryan King Chandragupta Maurya, during his last years, became a jain
ascetic and promoted Jainism in Karnataka.

Famine in Magadha led to the spread of Jainism in South India.

In Odisha, it enjoyed the patronage of Kalinga King of Kharavela

Jain Council

• First Jain Council

Held at Patliputra in 3rd Century B.C. and was presided by Sthulbhadra.
• Second Jain Council
Held at Vallabhi in 512 A.D. and was presided by Devardhi Kshmasramana.
Final Compilations of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

Jain Architecture

Types of Jain Architecture:

1. Ellora Caves (Cave No. 30-35)- Maharashtra

2. Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves- Odisha
3. Hathi-gumpha Cave- Odisha
4. Sittanavasal Cave- Tamil Nadu
Statues

1. Gometeshwara/Bahubali Statue- Shravanabelagola, Karnataka

2. Statue of Ahimsa (Rishabnatha)- Mangi-Tungi hills, Maharashtra
Temple

1. Dilwara Temple- Mount Abu, Rajasthan

2. Girnar and Palitana Temple- Gujarat
Jain Literature/Texts

Jain literature - Agam Sutras.Agam literature consists of many texts, which are the
sacred books of the Jain religion.