Summary Assignment for Final Exam Introduction to Linguistics

I. What is linguistics?
Linguistic is the study of languages. The subject of linguistic is language.

a. What is language?

Definition of language by Finegan and Besnier (1989), we might define language

as a finite system of elements and principles that make it possible for speakers to
construct sentences to do particular communicative jobs. ( An Introduction to Language and
Linguistics Edited by RALPH FASOLD AND JEFF CONNOR-LINTON. On page 9)

Language, a system of conventional spoken, manual (signed), or written symbols by

means of which human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture,
express themselves. The functions of language include communication, the expression of
identity, play, imaginative expression, and emotional release. (By David Crystal Writer and editor;
Honorary Professor of Linguistics, Bangor University.) commonly language is defined as a means of
communication.

b. The study of language

The scientific study of language is linguistics. It involves analysis of language form,

language meaning, and language in context, as well as an analysis of the social, cultural,
historical, and political factors that influence language. Linguists traditionally analyses human
language by observing the relationship between sound and meaning. (From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia). In other hand, when we study about language, it means we learn linguistic too.

c. How does linguistics differ from traditional grammar?

The key difference between traditional grammar and modern linguistics is that the traditional
grammar is prescriptive whereas the modern linguistics is descriptive.

Traditional grammar and modern linguistics are two branches of language studies. Traditional
grammar is the oldest of the two, and its origin runs back to the 15th century. Linguistics is a relatively
new branch of language study. Furthermore, it is also important to note that traditional grammar mainly
focuses on the written language while modern linguistics consider speech as the basic form of language.

d. The scope of linguistics

Linguistics involves a vast, complex and systematic study, with different core areas such
as phonology, phonetics, morphology, syntax and semantics. It is also intertwined with various
other disciplines and contains fields like sociolinguistics, and psycholinguistics.

II. Phonetics:

a. Introduction to phonetics.
Phonetics (from the Greek: φωνή, phōnē, "sound, voice") is the subfield of linguistics that
comprises the study of the physical sounds of human speech. It is concerned with the physical
 properties of speech sounds (phones), and the processes of their physiological production,
auditory reception, and neurophysiological perception.
Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds that make up the words of a language. Every
language has its own characteristics and there are sounds in English that you might not use in
your Language, and sounds in your language that we might not use in English. and one of the
more difficult things about English is the spelling and pronunciation. We only have 26 letters in
the alphabet but modern English uses about 44 different sounds. So when you look at word, it
can be difficult to know, from the spelling, how to pronounce it because the same letters can be
pronounced differently in different words.
Examples:
 “Busy”- here we can see that the “u” does not make the sound we might expect.
Instead it makes an /ɪ/ sound. It is not “boozy” or “buzzy”, it’s “busy”.
 “Word” – the “o” here, together with the “r”, is pronounced /ɜ:/ and that’s confusing
because that sound if often spelt with “e-r”.
(from learn English online introduction to Phonetics)
b. Manner and place of articulation
The place of articulation refers to “the point in the vocal tract where the speech organs restrict
the passage of air in some way so producing distinctive speech sounds” (Finch, 1999). As with
manner of articulation, places of articulation are more frequently used to describe consonants
than vowels. The following are the principal terms used in linguistics to describe these:

Bilabial. “Sounds formed by both lips coming together” (Finch, 1999). Examples include /b/, /p/ and
/m/.

Labio-dental. “Sounds formed by the bottom lip touching the upper teeth” (Finch, 1999).
Examples include /v/ and /f/.
Dental. “Sounds formed by the tongue touching the upper teeth” (Finch, 1999). These are not
common in English, although they can sound like /t/ or /d/. If you imagine saying ‘Barcelona’
with a heavy Spanish accent, you might hear it.

Alveolar. “Sounds formed by the tongue coming into contact with the hard,
or alveolar, ridge immediately behind the upper teeth” (Finch, 1999). The Alveolar sounds are
common in plosive English sounds such as /t/, /d/ and /n/, and in fricative sounds such as /z/.

Post-alveolar. “Sounds formed by the tongue curled behind the alveolar ridge” (Finch, 1999).
Examples include the /ʃ/ and /ʒ/, or the ‘sh’ sounds in words like ‘ship’, or the ‘s’ sound in words
like ‘vision’.
Palato-alveolar. “Sounds formed by the tongue in contact with both the roof of the mouth, or
hard palate, and the alveolar ridge” (Finch, 1999). Examples include the /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ sounds in
‘church’ and ‘judge’.

Palatal. “Sounds formed by the middle of the tongue up against the hard palate” (Finch, 1999).
The /j/ sound is the only consistent example of a palatal sound in English. This sound forms the
‘y’ in words like ‘yes’ and ‘yellow’.

Velar. “Sounds formed by the back of the tongue against the soft palate, or velum” (Finch,
1999). Think of the /k/ in ‘kick’, or the /g/ in ‘go’. The ‘ng’ sound / ŋ/ in words like ‘sing’ and
‘tongue’ is also a velar sound.
 Interdental. Produced by the tip of the tongue protruding between the upper and lower teeth.
Interdental sounds include the ‘th’ sound /θ/ in words like ‘thing’ and ‘author’, or the /ð/ in
words like ‘this’ and ‘other’.

Uvular. Sounds formed by the root of the tongue being raised against the velum. The ‘r’ in
French (try saying the word ‘Paris’ with a broad French accent), or the Arabic /q/ or /G/ are
uvular sounds. English doesn’t have a uvular sound.

Retroflex. There are other places of articulation which are not really used in English, and the retroflex is
one of the. Here, the tongue is curled back on itself to create a rolling /r/ sound against the alveolar
ridge.

Glottal. “Sounds formed from the space between the vocal folds, or glottis” (Finch, 1999). There
is no picture here because it is rather difficult to illustrate. The glottal sound /ʔ/ can be heard in
the affirmative expression ‘uh-huh’, and in certain estuary or cockney accents it is used to
replace the /t/ sound in words like ‘better’.
Manner of Articulation
So far we have seen that sound can be shaped as it passes through the vocal chords, and as the
air is passed from the lungs passed the pharyngeal cavity, the nasal cavity or the oral and labial
cavities. The sound variations created by these vocal apparatus are known as the manner of
articulation. In other words, the manner of articulation refers to the ways in which sound is
altered by manipulation of the flow of the airstream from the lungs. There are five principal
types of manner for consonant sounds, which are here adapted from Finch's Linguistic Terms
and Concepts (1999):

Plosives

“Sounds in whose articulation the airstream is stopped by a brief closure of two speech organs
and then released in a quick burst” (Finch, 1999). Examples of plosives in English are /p/, /b/, /t/,
/d/, /k/, /g/. You can see a useful diagram of the plosive sound formation here:
http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonetics/ConsonantsII/Phonetics3b.html.

Fricatives

“Sounds in whose articulation two speech organs narrow the airstream, causing friction to occur
as it passes through” (Finch, 1999). If you think of the sound /f/ or /s/, you might be able to hear
how the narrowing of the airstream by the lips being closed towards the upper teeth in the case
of /f/, or by the tongue being raised against the alveolar ridge in the case of /s/, creates a
'hissing' tone. This 'hissing' is caused by the 'friction' of the air – hence 'frictives'. You can see a
useful diagram of the fricative sound formation here:

http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonetics/ConsonantsII/Phonetics3c.html

Affricates

“Sounds in whose articulation the airstream is stopped as for a plosive and then released slowly
and partially with friction” (Finch, 1999). There are two affricate phonemes in English: /tʃ/ and
/dʒ/. If you think of the word 'church', notice that you begin the sound with the plosive /t/, but
that this is immediately followed by a fricative /sh/ sound. In the case of /dʒ/, think of the word
'judge'. Say the letter 'd' and the letter 'j' alternatively one after the other. Do you notice that
they both begin with the same formation of the tongue? The difference is that the /dʒ/ sound in
the 'j' is extended with a fricative /sh/ sound again to make sound out the '-dge' in the word
'judge'.

Nasals

“Sounds in whose articulation the airstream is diverted through the nasal cavity as a
consequence of the passage through the oral cavity being blocked by the lowering of the soft
palate, or velum” (Finch, 1999). Try saying the following out loud to yourself: 'tell me a story'.
Can you notice how dramatically the sound changes when you come to the /m/ of 'me'? The
airflow, which is passing through the oral cavity for the rest of this phrase, is at this point
diverted by the lowering of the velum into the nasal cavity. You can see a useful diagram of the
nasal sound formation here:
Approximants; “Sounds in whose articulation two speech organs approach each other
and air flows continuously between them without friction” (Finch, 1999). If you think of the /l/
sound, for example, you can sense how the tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge in order to
allow the air to flow laterally around the tongue, but without the 'hissing' sound of fricatives
(this is sometimes called a lateral or liquid approximant). For consonants like /w/, the lips
approach each other at the beginning of the sound and then 'glide' away from each other
towards the end (these sounds are sometimes referred to as glides). All of this is, again,
achieved without the 'hissing' sound of a fricative.

Vowel Sounds

In the case of vowel sounds, manner of articulation is “less precise than for consonant sounds”
(Finch, 1999), largely because consonant restrict a good deal more than vowels do. There are
two main ways in which manner of articulation in vowels is shaped:

Tongue height. “This distinguishes sounds in relation to the height of that part of the tongue
which is closest to the palate. When the tongue is high in the mouth, vowels are described as
close, and when low, as open. Other reference points are half-close and half-open” (Finch,
1999). For example, consider the vowel sound /iː/ (as in 'fleece', 'sea' or 'machine'). Notice with
this vowel sound that the body of the tongue is raised against the hard palate. With the vowel
sound of /ɒ/ though (as in 'lot', 'odd' or 'wash'), the tongue is low in the oral cavity.

Lip posture. “Vowels are produced with the lips in a rounded or spread posture. There are
degrees of rounding but it is conventional to classify vowels as being either rounded or spread”
 (Finch, 1999). Let us again consider the vowel sounds /iː/ and /ɒ/. Notice that when you say the
word 'fleece', the lips are spread wide when pronouncing the vowel sound. In the word 'wash'
though, the lips are rounded, almost as though you are about to whistle.

c. Acoustic properties of sounds

Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech, and aims to
analyses sound wave signals that occur within speech through varying frequencies, amplitudes
and durations.
One way we can analyses the acoustic properties of speech sounds is through looking at a
waveform. Pressure changes can be plotted on a waveform, which highlights the air particles
being compressed and rarefied, creating sound waves that spread outwards. A tuning fork
being struck can provide an example of the pressure fluctuations in the air and how the air
particles oscillate (move in one direction rhythmically) when we perceive sound.
There are four main properties of a sound wave, that also linguists make use of, when
they analyses speech sounds: Wavelength, period, amplitude, and frequency.

 The wavelength is the distance between crests of a waveform. That means that the
wavelength is the horizontal length of one cycle of the wave.
 The period of a wave is the time required for one complete cycle of the wave to pass by
a point. So, the period is the amount of time it takes for a wave to travel a distance of
one wavelength.
 The amplitude of a sound is represented by the height of the wave. When there is a loud
sound, the wave is high and the amplitude is large. Conversely, a smaller amplitude
represents a softer sound. A decibel is a scientific unit that measures the intensity of
sounds. The softest sound that a human can hear is the zero point. When the sound is
twice as loud, the decibel level goes up by six. Humans speak normally at 60 decibels.
 The frequency of a wave is the number of cycles that pass a set point in a second, and is
measured in Hertz (Hz). Frequency is intimately connected to pitch, although they are
not exactly synonymous; the A above middle C is a vibration at a rate of 440 Hz. Lower
frequency vibrations are perceived as being lower in pitch, and higher frequencies seem
higher in pitch. From (https://all-about-linguistics.group.shef.ac.uk/branches-of-
linguistics/phonetics/what-do-phoneticians-study/acoustic-phonetics/)

III. Phonology

a. Introduction to phonology
Phonology is the branch of linguistics that identifies and analyzes the pattern and organization
of speech sounds in a language.

Phonology is "the study of sound pertaining to the system of language". - Nikolai Trubetzkoy,
Grundzüge der Phonologie(1939)
Phonology is the study of linguistic sound systems. Whereas phoneticians study the
physical properties of speech sounds, phonologists, experts in phonology, investigate speech
sounds’ functional properties. The study of how speech sounds develop patterns and work
 according to it is phonology. Phonology identifies and demonstrates the sounds that form a
language. It analyzes how the sounds develop and combine to make words, and explains why it
is important to recognize certain phonetic features to identify a word. (https://www.basic-
concept.com/c/an-introduction-to-phonology)
b. Relation between phonetics and phonology;
The study of sound structure is commonly divided into phonology and phonetics. An
understanding of the interface between them is, thus, dependent on how we delineate the two
areas. Most theorizing about the relationship between phonology and phonetics acknowledges
that there are both conceptual and physical aspects of sounds of human language. Phonology is
often defined as the cognitive aspects of sound structures and sound patterns, while phonetics
is understood to be the physical implementation of these structures and patterns. Under this
view, phonology is what the speaker/hearer knows about the sound patterns of his/her
language and, thus, is non controversially part of the linguistic grammar. Phonetics, on the other
hand, is what actually happens during the production and perception of these cognitive
patterns. Phonology and phonetics interact in multiple ways. Phonological structure is realized
through phonetic mechanisms, generally referred to as phonetic implementation, though
researchers disagree about whether implementation should be viewed as a procedural,
directional relationship. However, it is also clearly true that phonetic considerations shape
observed phonological patterns.
(https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo;text=Phonology)

c. Complementary distribution.
Complementary distribution is the distribution of phones in their respective phonetic
environments in which one phone never appears in the same phonetic context as the other.
When two variants are in complementary distribution, one can predict when each will occur
because one can simply look at the environment in which the allophone is occurring.

Complementary distribution is commonly applied to phonology in which similar phones in

complementary distribution are usually allophones of the same phoneme. For instance, in
English, [p] and [pʰ] are allophones of the phoneme /p/ because they occur in complementary
distribution. [pʰ] always occurs when it is the syllable onset and followed by a stressed vowel (as
in the word pin). [p] occurs in all other situations (as in the word spin, or in sippin' in colloquial
pronunciation, with /ŋ/ flattened to /n/).

There are cases of elements being in complementary distribution but not being
considered allophones. For example, English [h] and [ŋ] are in complementary distribution: [h]
occurs only at the beginning of a syllable and [ŋ] only at the end. However, because they have so
little in common in phonetic terms, they are still considered separate phonemes.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complementary_distribution:text=phonology)

d. Phonemes and allophones.

Phonemes are the linguistically contrastive or significant sounds (or sets of sounds) of a
language. Such a contrast is usually demonstrated by the existence of minimal pairs or contrast
in identical environment (C.I.E.). Minimal pairs are pairs of words which vary only by the identity
of the segment (another word for a single speech sound) at a single location in the word (eg.
[mæt] and [kæt]). If two segments contrast in identical environment, then they must belong to
different phonemes. A paradigm of minimal phonological contrasts is a set of words differing
only by one speech sound. In most languages it is rare to find a paradigm that contrasts a
complete class of phonemes (eg. all vowels, all consonants, all stops etc.).

Example; the English stop consonants could be defined by the following set of minimally
contrasting words:-

i) /pɪn/ vs /bɪn/ vs /tɪn/ vs /dɪn/ vs /kɪn/

Only /ɡ/ does not occur in this paradigm and at least one minimal pair must be found
with each of the other 5 stops to prove conclusively that it is not a variant form of one of them.

ii) /ɡɐn/ vs /pɐn/ vs /bɐn/ vs /tɐn/ vs /dɐn/

Again, only five stops belong to this paradigm. A single minimal pair contrasting /ɡ/
and /k/ is required now to fully demonstrate the set of English stop consonants.

iii) /ɡæɪn/ vs /kæɪn/

Sometimes it is not possible to find a minimal pair which would support the
contrastiveness of two phonemes and it is necessary to resort to examples of contrast in
analogous environment (C.A.E.). C.A.E. is almost a minimal pair, however the pair of words
differs by more than just the pair of sounds in question.

Allophones are the linguistically non-significant variants of each phoneme. In other

words, a phoneme may be realised by more than one speech sound and the selection of each
variant is usually conditioned by the phonetic environment of the phoneme. Occasionally
allophone selection is not conditioned but may vary from person to person and occasion to
occasion ( free variation).

A phoneme is a set of allophones or individual non-contrastive speech segments.

Allophones are sounds, whilst a phoneme is a set of such sounds.

Allophones are usually relatively similar sounds which are in mutually exclusive or
complementary distribution (C.D.). The C.D. of two phones means that the two phones can
never be found in the same environment (ie. the same environment in the senses of position in
the word and the identity of adjacent phonemes). If two sounds are phonetically similar and
they are in C.D. then they can be assumed to be allophones of the same phoneme.

eg. in many languages voiced and voiceless stops with the same place of articulation do
not contrast linguistically but are rather two phonetic realisations of a single phoneme (ie.
/p/=[p,b],/t/=[t,d], and /k/=[k,ɡ]). In other words, voicing is not contrastive (at least for stops)
 and the selection of the appropriate allophone is in some contexts fully conditioned by phonetic
context (eg. word medially and depending upon the voicing of adjacent consonants), and is in
some contexts either partially conditioned or even completely unconditioned (eg. word initially,
where in some dialects of a language the voiceless allophone is preferred, in others the voiced
allophone is preferred, and in others the choice of allophone is a matter of individual choice).
(https://www.mq.edu.au/about/about-the-university/faculties-and-
departments/medicine-and-health-sciences/departments-and-centres/department-of-
linguistics/)
e. Phonological rules.
1. Assimilation – phonological process in which a sound changes to resemble a nearby
sound and can occur both forward and backward, within a word or between words

Ex. The prefix in- where sometimes it appears as in– and others as im-. In front of bilabial words,
like put or between, in– is pronounced with an m, “imput” or “im between.”

2. Dissimilation – phonological process in which two close sounds, similar consonants or

vowels, change to become less alike

Ex. Manner dissimilation in which a stop becomes a fricative when followed by another stop.
The word sixth is pronounced sikst where /sθ/ becomes /st/.

3. Insertion – phonological process in which a sound is added to a word

Ex. Voiceless stop insertion where, between a nasal consonant and a voiceless fricative, a
voiceless stop with the same place of articulation as the nasal consonant is inserted. In English,
many add a /p/ to hamster and say “hampster”.

4. Deletion (or Elision) – phonological process in which speech sounds disappear from
words

Ex. Vowels can be deleted to make one-syllable words that are easier to pronounce in a fast
manner. Police becomes “plice”, and friendship is said as “frienship”.

5. Metathesis – phonological process in which sounds switch places in the phonemic

structure of a word

Ex. To make words easier to pronounce and understand, letters are switched. Two historical
examples include Old English (brid and aks) becoming Modern English (bird and ask).

6. Strengthening (or Fortition) – phonological process in which a sound is made stronger

Ex. Aspiration is where voiceless stops become aspirated when they occur at the beginning of a
stressed syllable. Top is said with an h.
 7. Weakening (or Lenition) – phonological process in which a sound becomes weaker

Ex. Flapping is a phonological process of weakening whereby the voiceless alveolar stop
consonant phoneme /t/ is pronounced as a voiced alveolar flap [ɾ], like in the word kitty. This
usually happens before a stressed vowel and before and unstressed vowel where the sound is
pronounced with articulation resembling a flap.

IV. Morphology

a. Introduction to morphology
Morphology is the study of form and structure. In linguistics, it generally refers to the study
of form and structure of words.
b. Morphemes
Morphemes are minimal meaning-bearing units : example; talked contains two morphemes:
talk and -ed (past).
Form-function pairs (sound/sign-meaning)
Basic units of morphology. Morphemes are the “building stones” of phrases

c. root, base, stem

 A root is a form which is not further analyzable, either in terms of derivational or
inflectional morphology. It is that part of word-form that remains when all
inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. A root is the basic part
always present in a lexeme. In the form ‘untouchables’ the root is ‘touch’, to which
first the suffix ‘-able’, then the prefix ‘un-‘and finally the suffix ‘-s’ have been added.
In a compound word like ‘wheelchair’ there are two roots, ‘wheel’ and ‘chair’.
 A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology.

In the form ‘untouchables’ the stem is ‘untouchable’, although in the form ‘touched’ the
stem is ‘touch’; in the form ‘wheelchairs’ the stem is ‘wheelchair’, even though the stem
contains two roots.

 A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means that any root
or any stem can be termed a base, but the set of bases is not exhausted by the union
of the set of roots and the set of stems: a derivationally analyzable form to which
derivational affixes are added can only be referred to as a base. That is, ‘touchable’
can act as a base for prefixation to give ‘untouchable’, but in this process ‘touchable’
could not be referred to as a root because it is analyzable in terms of derivational
morphology, nor as a stem since it is not the adding of inflectional affixes which is in
question.
d. free and bound morphemes
 Free Morphemes
Free morphemes can occur independently. Example; boy, sing
 Bound Morphemes
Bound morphemes must be attached to another
morpheme, and cannot be used independently. Example [NUMBER pl] -s → boys
 e. Inflectional and derivational affixes
 An inflectional affix is an affix that: expresses a grammatical contrast that is
obligatory for its stem's word class in some given grammatical context is typically
located farther from its root than a derivational affix
 A derivational affix is an affix by means of which one word is formed (derived) from
another. The derived word is often of a different word class from the original.

One of the key distinctions among morphemes is between derivational and inflectional
morphemes. Derivational morphemes make fundamental changes to the meaning of the stem
whereas inflectional morphemes are used to mark grammatical information.

V. Syntax

a. Introduction to syntax

In linguistics, syntax refers to the rules that govern the ways in which words combine to form
phrases, clauses, and sentences. The term "syntax" comes from the Greek, meaning "arrange
together." The term is also used to mean the study of the syntactic properties of a language. (by;
By Richard Nordquist)

b. Syntactic structure
Types of sentences and their syntax modes include simple sentences, compound sentences,
complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences. Compound sentences are two simple
sentences joined by a conjunction. Complex sentences have dependent clauses, and compound-
complex sentences have both types included.

 Simple sentence: Subject-verb structure ("The girl ran.")

 Compound sentence: Subject-verb-object-conjunction-subject-verb structure ("The girl
ran the marathon, and her cousin did, too.")
 Complex sentence: Dependent clause-subject-verb-object structure ("Although they
were tired after the marathon, the cousins decided to go to a celebration at the park.")
 Compound-complex sentence: Four clauses, dependent and independent structures
("Although they weren't fond of crowds, this was different, they decided, because of the
common goal that had brought everyone together."

c. Grammatical and non-grammatical sentence

In linguistics, grammaticality is determined by the conformity to language usage as derived
by the grammar of a particular speech variety. In contrast, an ungrammatical sentence is one
that violates the rules of the given language variety. Example;
The smart student thinks that the teacher likes himself. (Grammatical)
The very happy mother said that the girl dresses herself. ( Non-Grammatical)

d. Phrase structure rules

Phrase structure rules are a type of rewrite rule used to describe a given language's syntax and
are closely associated with the early stages of transformational grammar, proposed by Noam
Chomsky in 1957. A grammar that uses phrase structure rules is a type of phrase structure
 grammar. Phrase structure rules as they are commonly employed operate according to the
constituency relation.

e. Transformational rules (Noam Chomsky)

Transformational grammar, a system of language analysis that recognizes the relationship among
the various elements of a sentence and among the possible sentences of a language and uses
processes or rules (some of which are called transformations) to express these relationships. For
example, transformational grammar relates the active sentence “John read the book” with its
corresponding passive, “The book was read by John. Transformational grammar assigns a “deep
structure” and a “surface structure” to show the relationship of such sentences.

VI. Semantics

a. Introduction to semantics
Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences; at its simplest, it concerns with
the relation of linguistic forms to non-linguistic concepts and mental representations in order to
explain how sentences are understood by the speakers of a language.
b. Word meaning
A “word” is a string of characters that can have different meanings (jaguar: car or animal?;
driver: one who drives a vehicle or the part of a computer?; rows, the plural noun or the third
singular person of the verb to row?)
c. Phrase & Sentence meaning
 Phrases are groups of words that act as a part of speech but cannot stand alone as a
sentence. The words in a phrase act together so that the phrase itself functions as a
single part of speech. Example; ran quickly (v. P)
 A sentence expresses a complete thought and contains a subject (a noun or pronoun)
and a predicate (a verb or verb phrase). Example; she ran quickly.

VII. Pragmatics

a. Cooperative principles (Paul Grice)

Cooperative principle describes how people achieve effective conversational
communication in common social situations that is, how listeners and speakers act cooperatively
and mutually accept one another to be understood in a particular way.
Cooperative Principle: speaker’s meaning can be calculated on the basis of semantic
meaning and the assumption that speakers are behaving rationally and cooperatively. Grice
broke this general principle into four conversational maxims to explain what rationality and
cooperativeness are: * The maxim of Quality: make your contribution one that is true
 rather than false. * The maxim of Quantity: provide the information that is required
for the purposes of the conversation, but no more. * The maxim of Relevance: make your
contributions relevant.* The maxim of Manner: be clear and orderly in your talk. ( page 160
from introduction to language and linguistics)
b. Implicature
An implicature is something the speaker suggests or implies with an utterance, even though it is
not literally expressed. Implicatures can aid in communicating more efficiently than by explicitly
saying everything we want to communicate. Example; An example of a conventional implicature
is "Donovan is poor but happy", where the word "but" implicates a sense of contrast between
being poor and being happy. (wikipeadia.implicature)
c. Speech acts (John Searle/John Austin)
Indirect speech act. A speech act is an utterance that serves a function in communication. We
perform speech acts when we offer an apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation,
compliment, or refusal; example, I will invite him.

VIII. Discourse Analysis & Psycholinguistics

a. discourse vs text
The main difference between text and discourse is that the text does not specify an agent
whereas the discourse specifies the agent of the information. Thus, a text is necessarily non-
interactive while discourse is necessarily interactive.
b. context
Linguistic context refers to the context within the discourse, that is, the relationship between
the words, phrases, sentences and even paragraphs. We can’t understand the exact meaning of
a sentence without the linguistic context to make clear the exact meaning of this word.
c. cohesion and coherence
Coherence: The ways a text makes sense to readers & writer through the relevance and
accessibility of its configuration of concepts, ideas and theories. Cohesion: The grammatical and
lexical relationship between different elements of a text which hold it together. Coherence is
about the unity of the ideas and cohesion the unity of structural elements. One way to do this is
through the use of cohesive devices: logical bridges (repetition), verbal bridges (synonyms),
linking words, and clear back referencing.
d. turn-taking
A turn is the time when a speaker is talking and turn-taking is the skill of knowing when to start
and finish a turn in a conversation. It is an important organizational tool in spoken discourse.
One way that speakers signal a finished turn is to drop the pitch or volume of their voice at the
end of an utterance.
e. psycholinguistic evidence
psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the interrelation between
linguistic factors and psychological aspects. The discipline is mainly concerned with the
mechanisms by which language is processed and represented in the mind and brain, that is, the
psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend, and
produce language.
 Psycholinguistics is concerned with the cognitive faculties and processes that are
necessary to produce the grammatical constructions of language. It is also concerned with the
perception of these constructions by a listener.
f. acquiring language
Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive
and comprehend language (in other words, gain the ability to be aware of language and to
understand it), as well as to produce and use words and sentences to communicate.
Language acquisition usually refers to first-language acquisition, which studies infants'
acquisition of their native language, whether that be spoken language or signed language,
though it can also refer to bilingual first language acquisition, which refers to an infant's
simultaneous acquisition of two native languages. This is distinguished from second-language
acquisition, which deals with the acquisition in both children and adults of additional languages.
g. speech production
speech production is the process by which thoughts are translated into speech. This includes the
selection of words, the organization of relevant grammatical forms, and then the articulation of
the resulting sounds by the motor system using the vocal apparatus. it is also the production of
spoken or written language. In psycholinguistics, it describes all of the stages between having a
concept to express and translating that concept into linguistic form.
h. language and brain
Language is rooted in the biology of the brain. Therefore, understanding the biology of
language is critical to understanding language itself. The vast majority of research on the
biological bases of language has focused on brain anatomy, mainly attempting to identify which
parts of
the brain underline which language functions, such as lexical or grammatical abilities.
Language plays a central role in the human brain, from how we process color to how we
make moral judgments. Further, speakers of different languages develop different cognitive
skills and predispositions, as shaped by the structures and patterns of their languages.

IX. Historical and Comparative Linguistics, Sociolinguistics, and Anthropological Linguistics

a. How language changes

language changes across space and across social group. Language also varies across time.
Generation by generation, pronunciations evolve, new words are borrowed or invented, the
meaning of old words drifts, and morphology develops or decays. it changes because the needs
of its speakers change. New technologies, new products, and new experiences require new
words to refer to them clearly and efficiently. Another reason for change is that no two people
have had exactly the same language experience. All facets of a language change over time,
including a speech community’s norms for appropriately using the language, but historical
linguists focus on four types of language change: phonological change, morphological
change, syntactic change, and semantic change.
b. Reconstruction
Comparative reconstruction, usually referred to just as reconstruction, establishes features of
the ancestor of two or more related languages, belonging to the same language family, by
means of the comparative method. Reconstructed lexical items offer a glimpse into a range of
semantic domains that were relevant to the speakers of the protolanguage, such as housing,
 food, ritual/religious culture, subsistence practices, and so forth. If a word can be confidently
reconstructed to the protolanguage (crucially, in both form and meaning), we may conclude that
the concept it designates was known to the speakers of the protolanguage.
c. Comparative method
The comparative method in historical linguistics is concerned with the reconstruction of an
earlier language or earlier state of a language on the basis of a comparison of related words and
expressions in different languages or dialects derived from it.
d. dialect and accent
An accent is how one pronounces words, a style of pronunciation. A dialect includes not just
pronunciations, but also one's general vocabulary and grammar. But not only would the
pronunciation (the accent) be different, the choice of vocabulary and the grammar behind both
sentences is clearly distinct. As an example, someone from the United States may say, “Would
you like some tea?”, while a person from the UK might instead say, “Fancy a cuppa?” They’re
both speaking English, and they’re both expressing the exact same idea. But not only would the
pronunciation (the accent) be different, the choice of vocabulary and the grammar behind both
sentences is clearly distinct.
e. language variation
variation is a characteristic of language: there is more than one way of saying the same
thing. Speakers may vary pronunciation (accent), word choice (lexicon), or morphology and
syntax (sometimes called "grammar"). But while the diversity of variation is great, there seem to
be boundaries on variation speakers do not generally make drastic alterations in sentence word
order or use novel sounds that are completely foreign to the language being spoken. Linguistic
variation does not equate with language ungrammaticality, but speakers are still (often
unconsciously) sensitive to what is and is not possible in their native lect.
Language variation is a core concept in sociolinguistics. Sociolinguists investigate
whether this linguistic variation can be attributed to differences in the social characteristics of
the speakers using the language, but also investigate whether elements of the surrounding
linguistic context promote or inhibit the usage of certain structures.

f. Lingua franca
A lingua franca (/ˌlɪŋɡwə ˈfræŋkə/ (About this soundlisten); lit. 'Frankish tongue'; for plurals see
§ Usage notes), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary
language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language or dialect systematically used to
make communication possible between groups of people who do not share a native language or
dialect, particularly when it is a third language that is distinct from both of the speakers' native
languages.
g. Pidgins and creole
A pidgin continues to be used primarily as a second language for intergroup communication,
whereas a creole has become the mother tongue of a particular group of speakers. However,
the grammar of a pidgin or creole is different from that of the lexifier or any of the other
contributing languages.
h. Styles, slang, and jargon
 Style is language variation which reflects changes in situational factors, such as
addressee, setting, task or topic. It is often analyzed along a scale of formality.
 The level of formality is influenced by some factors like the various differences among the
participants, topic, emotional involvement.
 Slang is vocabulary that usually used by people who have the same social group and
who know each other well, this is informal language that some people use in speaking
rather than writing. Slang normally refers to particular word and meaning, but can
conclude longer expression and idiom. An example; ASAP (as soon as possible)
 Jargon is the language “which is inaccessible to non-specialists” (Bussmann, 1998).
Jargon is used by people belonging to a certain profession; therefore, it is possible to
speak about the jargon of programmers, linguists, or educators. Jargonisms (jargon
words) can be used by people intentionally in order to show that they are
knowledgeable in a certain area. Example of jargonisms include “tech” (technician)
i. language and sex
Direct indexicality is the primary relationship between linguistics resources (such as
lexicon, morphology, syntax, phonology, dialect and language) and gender. For example, the
pronouns "he" and "she" directly indexes "male" and "female". Gender differences in language
use appear early; girls are more likely to use language in the context of emotional relationships
with others, while boys are more likely to use language to describe objects and events.
j. multilingual communities
Multilingualism is the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker or
by a group of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual
speakers in the world's population. People who speak several languages are also called
polyglots.
a. Relation between language and culture
Language and culture are intertwined. A particular language usually points out to a specific
group of people. When you interact with another language, it means that you are also
interacting with the culture that speaks the language. You cannot understand one’s culture
without accessing its language directly.
b. Language relativism (determinism)
Linguistic relativism emphasizes the contingency of signified. It is closely associated with
epistemological relativism and is a fundamental assumption involved in the Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis. It is used to refer to various hypotheses or positions about the relationship
between language and culture. In this perspective, linguistic relativity becomes a way of
exploring the power that words have over individuals and groups.
c. Anthropological linguistics definition
Anthropological linguistics, study of the relationship between language and culture; it
usually refers to work on languages that have no written records. Early students in this field
discovered what they felt to be significant relationships between the languages, thought,
and cultures of the Indian groups.

X. Ferdinand de Saussure (the father of modern Linguistics)

a. langage is primarily refers to language as a general phenomenon, or to the human ability to have
language.

b. langue is the system underlying speech activity, which is primarily used to refer to individual
languages such as French and English.
c. parole is the speech of the individual person.

d. syntagmatic and paradigmatic

Syntagmatic relation is a type of sematic relations between words that co‐occur in the same sentence
or text (Asher, 1994). Every item of language has a paradigmatic relationship with every other item
which can be substituted for it (such as cat with dog), and a syntagmatic relationship with items which
occur within the same construction (for example, in The cat sat on the mat, cat with the and sat on the
mat). Paradigmatic relation is a different type of sematic relations between words that can be
substituted with another word in the same categories (Hj⊘rland, 2014)

XI. Transformational Grammar (Noam Chomsky)

a. deep and surface structure

Deep structure refers to concepts, thoughts, ideas & feelings. Deep structure is what
you wish to express such as when you want to express your feeling but you could not say it out.
whereas surface structure refers to the words / language we use to represent the deep
structure and surface structure how you express it in with the help of words and sentence.
Example; If I were to tell you that “I bought colorful clothes”.
b. transformational grammar
is part of the theory of generative grammar, especially of natural languages. It considers
grammar to be a system of rules that generate exactly those combinations of words that form
grammatical sentences in a given language and involves the use of defined operations (called
transformations) to produce new sentences from existing ones. For example, transformational
grammar relates the active sentence “John read the book” with its corresponding passive, “The
book was read by John.
c. language as a system of meaning
Semantics is all about the meanings that are expressed through words and syntax.
Pragmatics looks at how language is used in context and how meanings can vary or be revealed
or concealed according to a speaker's situation. These systems, then, combine to make the
larger system we call language
d. Metafunction
The term metafunction originates in systemic functional linguistics and is considered to
be a property of all languages. Systemic functional linguistics is functional and semantic rather
than formal and syntactic in its orientation. As a functional linguistic theory, it claims that both
the emergence of grammar and the particular forms that grammars take should be explained “in
terms of the functions that language evolved to serve”.

References; book of An Introduction to Language and Linguistics Edited by RALPH

FASOLD AND JEFF CONNOR-LINTON, www.Wikipedia ,
http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/Phonetics/ConsonantsII/Phonetics3c.html, and
(https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo;text=Phonology.