Conventional Laboratory

Testing Methods & Issues

Ajanta Sachan
Assistant Professor
Civil Engineering
IIT Gandhinagar

Hiding World of Geotechnical Engg…!!

Shoring

Foundations

Tunneling Soil Exploration

Geotechnical Engg Structures…

Buried right Under your Feet…!!

1
 The issues before designing the CE
structure

Issue 1: Bearing Capacity

Shear strength of soils
Issue 2: Settlement
Compressibility parameters of soils

ground

If not satisfied…

Solution:
1. Ground Improvement
2. Choice of Foundation
3. Special cases/Problem soils:
Specific analysis

ground

2
 Typical Geotechnical Project
Geo-Laboratory Design Office
soil properties
~ for testing ~ for design & analysis

construction site

Issues 1: Bearing Capacity

Soils generally fail in shear
embankment
strip footing

failure surface mobilised shear

resistance

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

reaches the shear strength.

3
Issues 2:
Settlement
Classic Example:
Settlement problem

Other Information:
 Resting on Shallow
Foundation
 Supported by soft soil
underneath

… Blunders become monuments !

Leaning Tower of Pisa

4
 Soil profile beneath the Tower

Relationship between time, inclination and settlement

5
 Settlement: Other example

Non-uniform and overlapping

Leaning twin silos caused by non
pressure bulbs
uniform settlement in zone of
overlapping pressure bulbs
Tower silos; Ontario, Canada

You pay for soil

investigation whether you
carry out or not.
Infact you eventually pay
more without a soil
investigation.

6
 Importance of Geotechnical
Investigations…
Unique?

Each and every project is unique for

its geotechnical investigations…!!

No Ready-made solution is
available!!

Three Phases in Soils

S : Solid Soil particle Vv
Void ratio,e 
Vs
W: Liquid Water (electrolytes)
A: Air Air

7
 Soil Sampling: Before Lab testing
 Disturbed Samples: Natural soil structure is modified or
destroyed during sampling
 Representative Samples:
 Natural water content and mineral constituents of particular soil
layer are preserved
 Good for soil identification and water content
 Non-representative Samples:
 Water content altered and soil layers mixed up
 Of no use.
 Undisturbed Samples: Soil structure and the other
mineral properties are preserved to an extent.
 Some disturbance is always there, e.g. due to stress release.
However it should be minimized in order to have suitable
sample for our analysis.

Laboratory Test: Index Properties

 Index Properties of soil:
 Basic soil properties such as
(a) Specific gravity (Gs)
(b) Grain size distribution (dry/wet Sieve test, Hydrometer test),
(c) Liquid Limit (LL), Plastic limit (PL)
(d) OMC, Maximum Dry density(Compaction/Proctor test)
(e) Permeability (Constant head/Falling head)
(f) Relative Density (Minimum & Maximum density for cohesionless soils)

 More tests for Problem soils:

(a) Shrinkage Limit, Free swell, Swell pressure for Expansive soils
(b) Pinhole test, Crumb test for Dispersive soils
(c) Chemical Test (PH, Sulphite, Chloride, Iron etc) for soils (may affected with
industrial waste or some other waste)
(d) Furnace test for Organic Soils (peats etc)
“Representative Disturbed “soil samples are used to perform these tests.

8
 Laboratory Test: Engineering Properties
 Engineering Properties of soil:
 Consolidation Properties (Oedometer setup)
(i) Must to perform for Clayey soils;
(ii) Soil parameters obtained: Cc,Cv,Cr, OCR, k

 Shear Strength Properties

(i) Direct Shear test (for cohesionless soil)
(ii) Unconfined Compression test (for cohesive soil)
(iii) Triaxial test (for all soil types; cohesive, cohesionless)

 Dynamic Properties
(i) Cyclic Triaxial test
(ii) Cyclic Simple Shear test
(iii) Resonant Column test
(iv) Bender Element test
“Undisturbed” soil samples are used to perform these tests.

Grain Size Distribution

 In Coarse grained soils …... By Sieve analysis (Dry/Wet)

 In Fine grained soils …... By Hydrometer analysis

hydrometer

stack of sieves

sieve shaker

soil/water suspension

Sieve Analysis Hydrometer Analysis

: Above 75 m particle size : Below 75 m particle size

9
 Soil Groups Based on its Particle Size
Clay minerals
Non-Clay minerals

Cohesive Granular soils or

soils Cohesion less soils

Clay Silt Sand Gravel Cobble Boulder

Fine Medium Coarse Fine Coarse

0.425 2.0 20
0.002 0.075 4.75 80 300
Grain size (mm) (IS code)

Fine grain Coarse grain

soils soils
Hydrometer Sieve analysis
(< 75 m size) (> 75 m size)

Soil Texture
 Particle size, shape and size distribution
 Coarse-textured (Gravel, Sand)
 Fine-textured (Silt, Clay)
 Visibility by the naked eye (0.05mm is the approx
limit)
 Particle size distribution
 Sieve/Mechanical analysis or Gradation Test
 Hydrometer analysis for smaller than .05 to .075 mm
(#200 US Standard sieve)
 Particle size distribution curves
 Well graded
D60 D302
 Poorly graded Cu  Cc 
D10 D60 D10

10
 Grain Size Distribution
Coefficient of Uniformity
D60
Cu 
D30
For Gravel:
Poorly Graded Cu < 4 Poorly graded
Cu > 4 Well graded
or Gap graded
Well Graded
For Sand:
Cu < 6 Poorly graded
Gap Cu > 6 Well graded
Graded or Gap graded

Coefficient of Curvature

D30 2
Cc 
D60 D10
1 < Cc <3
Well graded

Grain Size Distribution Curve

Gravel: Sand:

11
 General Characteristics of Soils
Soil Characteristics Gravel, Sand Silt Clay
Grain size Granular, Coarse-grained, Fine-grained, can Fine-grained, can
particles can be seen not see individual not see individual
through naked eyes particles particles
Plasticity and Cohesion Non-plastic, Cohesion less Slightly or no Plastic, Cohesive
plasticity, Cohesion
Effect of grain size Important Less important Unimportant
distribution (Sieve analysis)

Effect of water (Atterberg Unimportant (except for Important Very important

limits) loose saturated soils under
dynamic loadings)
Permeability and Drainage Pervious, Freely draining Less pervious Almost impervious

Compressibility Low Medium High

Shear Strength Depends on relative Intermediate Depends on
density (generally high) consistency
(generally poor)

Effect of Particle size

12
 Relative Density
emax  e
Dr 
emax  emin
1.0
emax IS 2720 (Part XIV) 1983:
Dr = 0% emin (max density): Vibrating in mould under
0.8
some surcharge load
emax (min density): Pouring in a mould
Void 0.6 through
e
ratio 0%<Dr <100% funnel from ht of 2.5 cm.
(e) 0.4
emin
Dr = 100%
0.2

(Lambe and Whitman, 1979)

Atterberg Limits

Border line water contents, separating the

different states of a fine grained soil

water content
0 Shrinkage Plastic Liquid
limit limit limit

brittle- semi-solid plastic liquid

solid

13
 Atterberg Limits
The presence of water in fine-grained soils can significantly affect associated
engineering behavior, so we need a reference index to clarify the effects.

In percentage

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

Soil Classification Systems

 Group symbols:
G - gravel
S - sand
M - silt
C - clay
O - organic silts and clay
Pt - peat and highly
organic soils
H - high plasticity
L - low plasticity Plasticity Chart
W - well graded
P - poorly graded

14
Casagrande’s PI-LL Chart

60
U-line
50
A-line
Plasticity Index

40
illite
30
kaolinite
20
halloysite
10

0
chlorite
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid Limit

Typical Values of Atterberg Limits

(Mitchell, 1993)

15
 Consolidation: Oedometer test

Consolidation

When a saturated clay is loaded externally,

GL

saturated clay

the water is squeezed out of the clay over a long time (due to low
permeability of the clay).

16
 Consolidation Test

~ simulation of 1-D field consolidation in lab.

GL
porous stone

undisturbed soil
specimen metal ring
Dia = 50-75 mm (oedometer)
Height = 20-30 mm

Field Lab

Consolidation Test: Oedometer Test

Input: Vertical Load, Vertical

Displacement

Output: Consolidation parameters

(Cv, Cc & Cs); void ratio versus
overburden pressure curve;
(e-logp); permeability (k)

17
 H -e Relation

average vertical strain =

H
Ho
q kPa
GL q kPa
H
GL

Ho
saturated clay
saturated clay
e = eo
e = eo - e

Time = 0+ Time = 

H -e Relation

Consider an element where Vs = 1 initially.

e
eo

Time = 0+ Time = 

average vertical strain =

e
1  eo

18
 H -e Relation
Equating the two expressions for average vertical strain,

consolidation change in void ratio

settlement
H e

Ho 1  eo
initial void ratio
initial thickness of clay
layer

Overconsolidation ratio (OCR)

original
state
eo virgin consolidation line
void ratio

vo’  p'
OCR 
 vo '

Field p’ log v’

vo’

19
 Example 1: Oedometer test
e-logp curve (Void ratio versus pressure curve):
Incremental Loading & Unloading

Loading:
0.60 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0,
8.0 Kg/cm2

0.55 Unloading:
8.0, 4.0, 2.0, 1.0, 0.5, 0.2,
Void Ratio, e

0.1 Kg/cm2
0.50

Compression index
0.45 (Cc) = 0.1
Re-compression index
0.40 (Cr) = 0.01
0.1 1 10
Log Effective Stress in kg/cm 2

Compressibility parameters (Cc & Cr):

Compressibility parameters Cc & Cr are used in settlement

calculations. Cc is the slope of loading curve and Cr or Cs is
the slope of unloading curve.

Cc H c      av
 
Settlement for NC soil Sc  log  o 
1  eo   
o 

Cs H c   C H      av
 
Settlement for OC soil Sc  log  c   c c log  o 
1  eo  
 o 1  eo   
c 

20
 Oedometer test: Coff of consolidation (C ) v

1. Casagrande Method (logt method)

Time-settlement analysis at given load in
2. Taylor Method (√t method)
Oedometer test (consolidation test)

Casagrande Method Taylor Method

Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv)

cv t
St  Si  USc T
Ht 2

Permeability: k = Cv m v g w

Settlement curve (oedometer test at each load):

Casagrade method : t50 (U = 50%)
Tayor method : t90 (U = 90%)
U = Degree of consolidation cv t
T = Time factor T
Ht 2
Find coefficient of consolidation (Cv) ?

21
 Oedometer test: Time-settlement curve

cv t
100 kPa vertical stress T
9.82
Ht 2
9.8
Tayor method:
9.78
t90 (U = 90%)
Dial Gauge Reading (mm)

9.76
Taylor Method
9.74
9.72
9.7
9.68
9.66
9.64
9.62
9.6
0 10 20 30 40
Square Root of Time

Void ratio versus pressure curve

mv = av/(1+e0)

Void ratio versus Stress (e-p) relationship

22
 Compaction: Proctor test

Compaction
A simple ground improvement technique,
where the soil is densified through external
compactive effort.

Compactive
effort
+ water =

23
 Laboratory Compaction Test
- to obtain the compaction curve and define the optimum water content
and maximum dry density for a specific compactive effort.

Standard Proctor: Modified Proctor:

hammer

• 3 layers • 5 layers

• 25 blows per layer • 25 blows per layer

• 2.7 kg hammer • 4.9 kg hammer

• 300 mm drop • 450 mm drop

compaction mould

Example 2: Standard Proctor test

1.97
1.96
1.95
1.94
1.93
1.92
Dry density (gm/cc)

OMC 11.0 %
1.91
1.90 MDD 1.96 gm/cc
1.89
1.88
1.87
1.86
OMC = Optimum
1.85 Moisture Content
1.84
1.83 MDD = Maximum
1.82
1.81 Dry Density
1.80
1.79
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
water content (%)

24
 Compaction Curve
Dry density (d)

- Soil grains densely packed

- Good strength and stiffness

- Low permeability
d, max

optimum
water content Water content

Compaction Curve
What happens to the relative air
quantities of the three phases
with addition of water? water
Dry density (d)

soil

difficult to expel all air

lowest void ratio and highest

dry density at optimum w

Water content

25
 Effect of Compactive Effort
Increasing compactive
effort results in:

 Lower optimum
Dry density (d)

E2 (>E1)
water content
 Higher maximum
dry density

E1

Water content

Compaction Control Test

d Compaction
specifications
d,field = ? Compare!
wfield = ?
w

compacted ground

52

26
 Shear Strength Testing
(Laboratory)

Shear Strength Testing (Lab methods)

Shear Strength Lab testing methods:

1. Direct Shear test:

Cohesionless soil (sands, silts)

2. Unconfined Compression test:

Cohesive soil (sample can stand by itself)

3. Triaxial test: Mostly compression test

a. Unconsolidated Undrained (UU)
b. Consolidated Undrained (CU)
c. Consolidated Drained (CD)

27
 Unconfined Compression Test (UC test)
(Recommended for Cohesive soils)

Input: Vertical Load, Vertical

Displacement

Platen

Platen

Output: Shear Strength under

Undrained Conditions (Su)

Unconfined Compression (UC) Test

on Soils

28
 Example 3: Unconfined Compression (UC) test
- Recommended for Cohesive soils
300
qu 267 kPa
250 c 133 kPa

200
Axial Stress (kPa)

qu = Unconfined
150 Test1 compressive strength
Test2
Test3

100 c= cohesion

Deformation rate
50
=1.25mm/min

0 Sample size = 38 mm
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
dia & 76 mm ht
Axial Strain (%)

Direct Shear Test

(Recommended for Cohesionless soils)

Input: Vertical Load, Vertical

Displacement, Lateral Load
Lateral Displacement

Output: shear strength, friction angle (f)

29
 Direct Shear Test, contd…

Measured Quantities: Interpretations :

1. Vertical Load 1. Shear Strength under Wet
2. Vertical Displacement Conditions
3. Lateral/Shearing Load
4. Lateral/Shearing Displacement

Example 4: Direct Shear test

Test 1: at 0.5 Kg/cm2
- Recommended for Cohesionless soils Test 2: at 1.0 Kg/cm2
Test 3: at 1.5 Kg/cm2

Test1 Test2 Test3

120

100
Shear stress (kPa)

80

60

40

20

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

Horizontal Displacement (mm)

30
 Example 4: Direct Shear test

1.2

f 34 deg
Shear stress (kg/cm2 )

c 0 kPa
0.8

0.4
Deformation rate
=0.25mm/min
0.0
Sample size =
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Normal stress (kg/cm 2 ) 60mmx60mmx25mm

Shear stress at Shear stress

Test Normal stress failure at failure
(kg/cm2) (kPa) (kg/cm2)
Direct shear test 1 0.5 39.6 0.396
Direct shear test 2 1.0 64.8 0.648
Direct shear test 3 1.5 100.7 1.007

Shear Stress-shear displacement

curves of soils (Direct Shear test)

31
 Triaxial Test
piston (to apply deviatoric stress)

failure plane

Measures shear
O-ring strength
parameters of
impervious soil:
soil sample at membrane
failure cohesion &
friction angle
porous
stone
perspex
cell
Loading conditions:
water
Static/Monotoinc loading
(compression is common)
cell pressure pore pressure or
back pressure
pedestal volume change

Triaxial Testing Setup

Input: Vertical Load, Vertical

Control
Panel Displacement, Pore
pressure, Cell pressure

Soil specimen

Triaxial setup

Output: Shear Strength properties of soil under

UU, CU, CD Conditions: friction angle (f), cohesion (c)

32
 Triaxial Test, contd…

Measured Quantities:
1. Vertical Load
2. Vertical Displacement
3. Confining Pressure
4. Back Pressure/Excess
Pore Pressure
5. Volume change by
measuring expelled
water volume

Interpretations :
1. Shear Stress-Strain Relationship under triaxial
compression/extension Conditions
2. Volumetric Response or Void ratio change
3. Shear Strength under Undrained/Drained triaxial shearing Conditions

Types of Triaxial Tests

deviatoric stress ()

Under all-around Shearing (loading)

cell pressure c

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading loading

33
 Shear failure

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface ()

reaches the shear strength (f).

Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion



 f  c   tan f
f

friction angle
cohesion
f
c




f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without failure,
under normal stress of .

34
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion

 Shear strength consists of two components: cohesive

and frictional.

f  f  c   f tan f
f tan f
f frictional
component
c c

f


Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope

The soil element does not fail
if the Mohr circle is contained
within the envelope

GL


c

c
Y
c c+

Initially, Mohr circle is a point

35
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
As loading progresses, Mohr
circle becomes larger…

GL


c

c
Y
c

.. and finally failure occurs

when Mohr circle touches
the envelope

Orientation of Failure Plane

Failure plane
Y oriented at 45 +
f/2 to horizontal
45 + f/2
GL
45 + f/2

c
f
c 90+f
Y
c c+

36
 Envelopes in terms of  & ’
f

c c
Identical specimens
initially subjected to c c
different isotropic
stresses (c) and then uf
loaded axially to failure Initially… Failure

c, f

in terms of 
At failure,
3 = c; 1 = c+f c’, f’
3’ = 3 – uf ; 1’ = 1 - uf in terms of ’

1- 3 Relation at Failure

1

X 3

soil element at
failure

3 1

 1   3 tan 2 (45  f / 2)  2c tan( 45  f / 2)

 3   1 tan 2 (45  f / 2)  2c tan( 45  f / 2)

37
 UU: Unconsolidated Undrained Test

Example 5: UU Triaxial test

Test 1: at 100 kPa
Deformation rate =0.4 mm/min Test 2: at 200 kPa
Sample size = 38 mm dia & 76 mm ht Test 3: at 300 kPa

1400

1200
Axial straa (kPa)

1000

800
Test1
600 Test2

400 Test3

200

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Axial strain (%)

38
 Example 5: UU Triaxial test

600
ccosf = a
500
sinf = tanx
400
q (kPa)

300

200
q = (1 -3 )/2 f 38 deg
p = (1 +3 )/2 c 57 kPa
100

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
p (kPa)

3 d q p - a is intercept of q-p curve

(kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) - x is slope angle of q-p curve
Test 1 100 531.1 265.55 365.55
Test 2 200 957.8 478.9 678.9
Test 3 300 1163.3 581.65 881.65

Thank You

39
Time Rate of Settlement
Assumption of pore pressure distribution
under the given stress conditions

For open
clay layer
with two
way
drainage
use curve
for V=1

IS 8009 (Fig 13)

Isotropic Compression Test

Z Increase in
o
Cell Pressure
o

o o

o
X
o

Y
Measured Quantities:
1. Cell Pressure
2. Volume Change & Pore Pressure
3. Axial Displacement

Interpretations :
1. Consolidation parameters, Transient Flow, T50, T100
2. Stress-strain relationship, Cc and Cs
3. Sense of Anisotropy by ea-ev relationship

40
 CU: Consolidated undrained Test

Example 6: CU Triaxial test

A typical CU test

Output: f'= 27 deg

- Axial stress- axial strain curve c' = 0 kPa
- Pore pressure-axial strain curve

41
 Example 6: CU Triaxial test

180
250
Compression, OCR=1
Extension, OCR=1 160
200
140
Compression, OCR=1

Excess pore pressure (kPa)

150
Deviatoric stress (kPa)

120

100 Extension, OCR=1 100

Compression, OCR=10
80
50
Extension, OCR=10
60
0
40
Compression, OCR=10
-50
20 Extension, OCR=10

0 -100
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
ea (%) ea (%)

CD: Consolidated Drained Test

42
 Example 7: CD Triaxial test
A typical CD test
500 9

400
7

Volumetric strain (%)

300
5
 d (KPa)

Confining pressure 4
200
= 276 kPa 3 f= 26.6 deg
100
2 c= 0 kPa
1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
e a (%) e a (%)

Total three triaxial tests at three different

confining pressures need to be
Output:
performed to obtain shear strength
- Axial stress- axial strain curve parameters of soil under consolidated
- Volumetric strain -axial strain curve drained (CD) conditions.

Example 7: CD Triaxial test

500 10

450
8 Compression, OCR=1
Compression, OCR=1
400
6
350
Volumetric strain (%)
Deviatoric stress (kPa)

300 4
Extension, OCR=1
250
Extension, OCR=1
2
200

150 0
Compression, OCR=10
100 Extension, OCR=10
Extension, OCR=10 -2 Compression, OCR=10
50

0 -4
-14 -10 -6 -2 2 6 10 14 18 22 26 -14 -10 -6 -2 2 6 10 14 18 22 26
ea (%)
ea (%)

43
 Other Soil Properties: Dynamic
Properties

Soil Properties

 Monotonic Loading (Shear strength properties of soil)

 Angle of Internal Friction (f)

 Cohesion (c)

 Dynamic Loading (Dynamic properties of soil)

 Shear Modulus (G)

 Damping Ratio (D)

44
 Dynamic properties of Soil

Shear Modulus, G = .VS2

Shear wave velocity = VS (m/sec)
Mass density =  (g/g) (Kg/m3)
Unit weight of soil = g (KN/m3)
Acceleration of gravity = g (m/sec2)

Damping, D = decay in energy

Shear Modulus (G) is measured in KN/m2 & Damping (D) in %

Dynamic properties of soil

 Low Strain Amplitude test

 For strains (10-6% to 10-4%)

 Frequency range: 10 Hz to 200Hz

 Vibratory loading (Rotating Machinery etc)

 High Strain Amplitude test

 For strains (10-4% to 10-2%)

 Frequency range: 0.1 Hz to 2 Hz (in general)

 Blast loading, Earthquake

45
 Dynamic properties (Lab test)

 High Strain Amplitude test

 Cyclic Triaxial Test

 Cyclic Direct Simple Shear Test

 Low Strain Amplitude test

 Resonant Column Test

 Bender Element Test

Cyclic Triaxial Test (High strain amplitude test)

Dynamic
properties of
soil using Cyclic
Triaxial system:

1. Shear
Modulus (G)

2. Damping
ratio (D)

46
 Cyclic Triaxial Test

Dynamic Stress   d Axial Strain  e a

Dynamic Young Modulus  E Damping  D

Cyclic Simple Shear Test (High strain amplitude test)

Digitally controlled Electro-
mechanical actuators are used
to apply the stress or strain
controlled loading

Output: Shear modulus (G),

Damping (D)

47
 Cyclic Simple Shear Test

ShearStress   ShearStrain  g

ShearModulus  G Damping  D

Resonant Column Test

(Low strain amplitude test)

The basic principle of the resonant column

device is to excite one end of a confined
cylindrical soil specimen in a fundamental
mode of vibration by means of torsional or
longitudinal excitation.

Once the fundamental mode of resonance

frequency is established, measurements
are made of the resonance frequency and
amplitude of vibration from which wave
propagation velocities and strain
amplitudes are calculated using the theory
of elasticity.

The Resonant Column Test provides

laboratory values of Shear modulus (G)
and Damping ratio (D).

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 Resonant Column Test
(Low strain amplitude test)

With known value of the

resonant frequency it is
possible to back-calculate
the velocity (vs or vl) of the
wave propagation and
thereby G or E

After measuring the

resonant condition, the drive
system is cut of and the
specimen is brought to a
state of free vibration.
Damping is determined by
observing the decay pattern
(a) Specimen is excited at the bottom and the response is
picked up at the top (velocity or acceleration)
(b) Driving force is applied on the top. The response
pickup is also placed on the top

Resonant Column Test:

Determination of Shear Modulus of soil (G)

(t )  C eit

Resonant freq. f1
Acc.
+
Sample Geometry
+
f End restraint
f +
Wave equation (torsion)

2
 f 
G0  vs2  (2H 2  1 
 FT 

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 Resonant Column Test:
Damping properties of soil (D

D = 1/2·1

Bender Element Test (Low strain amplitude test)

Bender Elements
(made by Piezoelectric material)

50
 Bender Element Test (Low strain amplitude test)

Piezo-ceramic elements distort or bend when subjected to a change in

voltage.

Two Piezoelectric bender elements are placed opposite one another and
inserted a small distance into a soil sample. One bender element work as
source and other as receiver.

The voltage in one element is varied creating shear waves through the
sample, which are received by the opposite element. The input voltage,
(created using a function generator) and the received signal are recorded
continuously using an oscilloscope, allowing the travel time of the shear
waves to be measured from which the dynamic elastic shear modulus (G)
can be determined.

Bender elements provide a reliable, cost effective alternative to undertaking

locally instrumented stress path triaxial tests and can be readily performed
on unconfined samples in the laboratory.

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