Robotics and Automation - Unit 2

EC8064 – Robotics and Automation
AUG 2021 – NOV 2021
Robert Rajkumar S
AP/ECE
robertrajkumar@licet.ac.in
7708571977
SRRK, Robotics and Automation, AUG 2021 – NOV 2021

EC 8074 – R&A - Objective
The student should be made:
• To understand the basic concepts associated with the design,
functioning, applications and social aspects of robots
• To study about the electrical drive systems and sensors used in
robotics for various applications
• To learn about analyzing robot kinematics, dynamics through
different methodologies
• To learn about various motion planning techniques and the
associated control architecture
• To understand the implications of AI and other trending concepts
of robotics

EC8074 - Syllabus
UNIT I FOUNDATION FOR BEGINNERS 9
• Introduction -- brief history, definition, anatomy, types, classification, specification
and need based applications; role and need of robots for the immediate problems
of the society, future of mankind and automation-ethical issues; industrial scenario
local and global, case studies on mobile robot research platform and industrial
serial arm manipulator
UNIT II BUILDING BLOCKS OF A ROBOT 9
• Types of electric motors - DC, Servo, Stepper; specification, drives for motors -
speed & direction control and circuitry, Selection criterion for actuators, direct
drives, non-traditional actuators; Sensors for localization, navigation, obstacle
avoidance and path planning in known and unknown environments – optical,
inertial, thermal, chemical, biosensor, other common sensors; Case study on choice
of sensors and actuators for maze solving robot and self driving cars

EC8074 - Syllabus
UNIT III KINEMATICS, DYNAMICS AND DESIGN OF ROBOTS & END-EFFECTORS 9
• Robot kinematics - Geometric approach for 2R, 3R manipulators,
homogenous transformation using D-H representation, kinematics of
WMR, Lagrangian formulation for 2R robot dynamics; Mechanical design
aspects of a 2R manipulator, WMR; End-effector - common types and design
case study.
UNIT IV NAVIGATION, PATH PLANNING AND CONTROL ARCHITECTURE 9

• Mapping & Navigation – SLAM, Path planning for serial manipulators;
types of control architectures - Cartesian control, Force control and hybrid
position/force control, Behaviour based control, application of Neural
network, fuzzy logic, optimization algorithms for navigation problems,
programming methodologies of a robot

EC8074 - Syllabus
 UNIT V AI AND OTHER RESEARCH TRENDS IN ROBOTICS 9
• Application of Machine learning - AI, Expert systems; Tele-robotics and
Virtual Reality, Micro & Nanorobots, Unmanned vehicles, Cognitive robotics,
Evolutionary robotics, Humanoids
Text Books:
1. Saeed. B. Niku, Introduction to Robotics, Analysis, system, Applications, Pearson

educations, 2002
2. Roland Siegwart, Illah Reza Nourbakhsh, Introduction to Autonomous Mobile Robots, MIT Press,
2011

References
 Richard David Klafter, Thomas A. Chmielewski, Michael Negin, Robotic engineering: an integrated
approach, Prentice Hall, 1989
 Craig, J. J., Introduction to Robotics: Mechanics and Control, 2nd Edition, Addison-Wesley, 1989.
 K.S. Fu, R.C. Gonzalez and C.S.G. Lee, Robotics: Control, Sensing, Vision and Intelligence, McGraw-Hill,
1987.
 Wesley E Snyder R, Industrial Robots, Computer Interfacing and Control, Prentice Hall International
Edition, 1988.
 Robin Murphy, Introduction to AI Robotics, MIT Press, 2000
 Ronald C. Arkin, Behavior-based Robotics, MIT Press, 1998
 N. P. Padhy, Artificial Intelligence and Intelligent Systems, Oxford University Press, 2005
 Stefano Nolfi, Dario Floreano, Evolutionary Robotics – The Biology, Intelligence and Technology of
Self–Organizing Machines (Intelligent Robotics and Autonomous Agents series), MIT Press, 2004.

EC8074 - Outcomes
The student should be able to:
• Explain the concepts of industrial robots in terms of classification,
specifications and coordinate systems, along with the need and
application of robots & automation
• Examine different sensors and actuators for applications like maze
solving and self driving cars.
• Design a 2R robot & an end-effector and solve the kinematics and
dynamics of motion for robots.
• Explain navigation and path planning techniques along with the
control architectures adopted for robot motion planning.
• Describe the impact and progress in AI and other research trends
in the field of robotics
Robot Motors

Robot Motors
 Different types of robots have different types of
motors
• Motors and actuators are the devices which make the
robot movable
• Motors convert electric energy to mechanical force /
motion
• Either an AC or DC electrical energy source serves as
the input to the motor
• The result is mechanical motion of the output shaft,
that is a rotation about or a translation along the shaft,
o provided the load carried by the shaft does not
exceed the maximum load the motor is designed
to carry

Robot Motors
Motor parameters
• AC or DC power source, torque, speed
Industrial robotics
• AC servo motor
Mobile robotics & Hobby robots
• dc motor, dc servo motor, and stepper motors

Selection of Motor
The type of motor chosen for an application depends
on the characteristics needed in that application
• These include
o How fast you want the object to move
o The weight, size of the object to be moved
o The cost and size of the motor
o The accuracy of position or speed control needed

Motor Performance
Performance of a motor can be described by its parameters
• Rated Speed
o Speed measured in shaft revolutions per minute (RPM)
• Torque
o torque is the amount of twisting force generated by the motor (often through a shaft),
measured in lb-ft
• Horse Power = Speed x Torque / 5252.11...
• A measure of work expended: 1 HP = 33,000 foot-pounds per minute.
• Torque-Speed performance of a motor

Types of Motors
AC motors
• rarely used in mobile robots
• Required in industry for high torque
DC motors
• Brushless DC
• Brushed DC
• Geared DC motor
DC servo motors
Stepper motors

AC Motor Characteristics
 When power is applied, AC motors turn in one direction at a fixed speed
 Both reversable and non-reversable models available
 Usually high voltage (110v or 240V AC)
 Inexpensive and commonly available
 Optimized to run at a fixed, usually high RPM
 If the applied load is greater than the capacity of the motor, the motor will stall
and possibly burn out.
 Suitable for highest performance and torque output
 Pumps, water heaters, lawn and garden equipment, ovens

DC Motor Characteristics
 When power is applied, DC motors turn in one direction at a fixed speed
 They are optimized to run at a fixed, usually high RPM
 Torque is highest at the rated speed and lowest at low speeds
 Speed can be varied if a PWM (pulse width modulation) controller is added
 Almost all can be reversed
 Available in wide range of speeds and power
 Suitable for turning, spinning, etc
 Not suitable for positioning unless some kind of position feedback is added
 If the applied load is greater than the capacity of the motor, the motor will stall
and possibly burn out

DC Servo Motors
 DC servo motors consist of a DC motor combined with feedback for either
position or speed
 Includes control of acceleration, velocity, and position to very close tolerances
and
 allow for fast starts, stops and reversals, and very accurate control
 A system with a motor, feedback, and a controller which constantly adjusts the
position or speed to in reaction to the feedback is called a closed-loop system
 Hobby Servos require a desired position signal to tell them where to turn to
 Once told where to go, a Hobby Servo uses its built-in controller and feedback
system to hold its position.
 When power is applied, in the absence of a signal, a hobby servo goes to its
central position
 Hobby servos can also be modified to turn continuously, in which case the
control signal is speed instead of position
DC Stepper Motor
 Requires a separate controller circuitry or
 it will not turn when power is applied.
 Precise positioning is possible by keeping count of steps requested,
even without feedback
 Torque is highest at the full stop and decreases as speed is increased
 If the applied load is greater than the capacity of the motor, the
motor may not step, thereby making precise positioning no longer
possible

How Motors Work
Principle of How Motors Work
Electrical current flowing in a loop of wire will produce a
magnetic field across the loop.
 When this loop is surrounded by the field of another
magnet, the loop will turn, producing a force (called torque)
that results in mechanical motion.

DC Motor

AC Motor

DC Motor
Stator
• Consists of either a permanent magnet or
electromagnetic windings
• Generates a stationary magnetic field around the rotor
• Occupies the central part of the motor.
Rotor ( Armature )
• Made up of one or more electric windings
• These electric windings generate a magnetic field when
energized by the external current.
• Opposite poles generated by the stator field and repelled
by the similar poles, which causes the rotor to rotate.

DC Motor
Commutator
• Insure that the current flowing through the rotor windings is always in the same
direction, and
• the proper coil on the rotor is energized in respect to the field coils.
Brushes
• creating the variable magnetic field in different arms through the commutator
segments attached to the windings.
• Dynamic magnetic field is generated in the motor when a voltage is applied across the
brushes.

DC Motors
If permanent magnets are used to generate the magnetic field,
• the output torque T is proportional to the magnetic flux  and the current i
• Where kt is torque constant

If windings are used for the stator, then the output torque is,

DC Motor
 Schematic Diagram: DC motor armature circuit
 Assume that there is no power loss

• The total input is equal to the output
• voltage E is proportional to the angular velocity of the motor ꙍ

DC Motor
Back-emf voltage: E
• Generated across the motor because the windings cross the magnetic field
• The rotor speed increases, so does the back-emf voltage
In Reality,
• Rotor windings have both resistance and inductance
• Substituting Equations and rearranging

DC Motor
L/R is called motor reactance

• Small to ignore
Therefore,

Geared DC motor
DC motors provide good speeds without
enough torque
• overcome this
o DC motors are often coupled with gears which
provide greater torque
• but reducing speed
Robots would require a geared DC motor

to pull the weight of the robot and any
additional components placed

Brushless DC Motor
DC motor uses brushes to detect the change in orientation
In a brushless motor
• The rotor is made of permanent magnet and
• The stator is made of electromagnet
To detect a change in orientation
• Brushless motors generally use Hall Effect sensors
Very useful in robots
• More capable
• Provide enough torque
• Greater speeds than brushed motors
Expensive due to their design complexity
Need a controller to control their speed and rotation

Geared DC motor
Brushed DC motor
Brushless DC motors

Servo Motor
 An important issue in all electric motors is the back electromotive force, or back-emf
 Nominal no-load speed - the back-emf is large enough
 At maximum ꙍ, the output torque is zero

 For constant input voltage V,
• if a load is applied to the motor
o motor will slow down
o resulting in smaller back emf,
o larger effective current, and
o positive net torque

Servo Motor
Larger the load
• Slower the motor to develop a larger torque
If the load becomes increasingly larger
• Motor stalls Generates Damage the
Heat motor
o There is no back-emf
o Effective current is at its maximum
o Torque is at its maximum
To increase the motor torque while maintaining a desired speed
• the input voltage V (or current) to the rotor, stator, or both must be increased
By varying the voltage (or corresponding current)
• The speed-torque balance can be maintained as desired.
• This system is called a servomotor.

Servo Motor
 A servomotor is a DC, AC, brushless, or even
stepper motor with feedback
 Run using a control loop and require feedback
 A control loop uses feedback from the motor to
help the motor get to a desired state (position,
velocity, and so on)
• Generally, the PID (Proportional, Integral,
Derivative) control loop is used for servo
motors
 If the load is high, the velocity is lower than the
desired value
• the voltage (or current) is increased until
the speed is equal to the desired value
 the velocity is larger than desired
• the voltage is reduced accordingly

Advantages of Servo Motors
 High intermittent torque
 High torque to inertia ratio
 High speeds
 Work well for velocity control
 Available in all sizes
 Quiet
Disadvantages of Servo Motors
 More expensive than stepper motors

 Cannot work open loop - feedback is required
 Require tuning of control loop parameters

Stepper Motor
 Unlike regular DC or AC motors (but like brushless DC motors)
• if you connect a stepper motor to power, it will not rotate.
• Steppers rotate only when the magnetic field is rotated through its different windings
 Stepper motors need a microprocessor or driver/controller (indexer) circuit for rotation
 Similar to servomotors, which need feedback circuitry
 Stepper motor will have high torque at low speeds, but low torque at high speeds
• at low speeds
o choppy unless the drive has micro stepping capability
• At higher speeds
o not as choppy, but it does not have as much torque
• At idle
o has a higher holding torque
 Types of Stepper Motors
• Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor
• Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
• Hybrid Stepper Motor
Stepper Motor – Permanent Magnet
 When the phase A is energized with a positive with respect to the A’
• The windings establish North and South poles
• Due to the force of attraction, the rotor poles align with stator poles
 When excitation is switched to B phase and switching off phase A
• The rotor further adjusts to magnetic axis of phase B, and
• Rotates through 90 degrees in clockwise direction.

Stepper Motor – Permanent Magnet
If the phase A is energized with a negative current with respect to A’
• The formation of stator poles causes the rotor to move through another 90 degrees in
clockwise direction
If the phase B is excited with negative current by closing phase A switch
• The rotor rotates through another 90 degrees in the same direction
Then, The phase A is excited with positive current
• The rotor comes to the original position
• Making a 360 degrees complete revolution

Stepper Motor - – Permanent Magnet
The step angle of this 2-phase 2-pole permanent magnet rotor motor
is
• 360/ (2 × 2) = 90 degrees
Step angle can be reduced
• Energizing two phases simultaneously
• sequence of 1-phase ON and 2-phase ON modes with a proper polarity

Stepper Motor – Hybrid Motor
Popular type of stepper motor
Used in applications that require very small stepping angle such as
1.5, 1.8 and 2.5 degrees
4-pole, 6-tooth rotor hybrid stepper motor

Stepper Motor – Hybrid Motor
 When the phase A-A’ is excited with a DC supply, keeping B-B’
unexcited
• The rotor aligns such that the south pole of the rotor faces
north pole of the stator
• While north pole of rotor faces south pole of the stator.
 if the phase B-B’ is excited, keeping A-A’ switched off
• Upper pole becomes north and lower becomes south,
• The rotor will align to a new position by moving through
counterclockwise direction
 By a proper sequence of pulses to the stator, the motor will turn in
desired direction
 The step angle of this 2-phase, 4-pole, 6-tooth rotor motor is
• 360/ (2 × 6) = 30 degrees
 For high angular resolution = > Required more number of poles
4-pole, 6-tooth rotor hybrid stepper motor

Stepper Motor
 Move in discrete steps
 Requires a stepper drive and a controller to control a stepper motor
(Commands determine the specified movement of the Stepper
Motor)
 run in an open loop configuration (no feedback)
• Unless Stepper Motors are used in closed loop mode, they do
not perform as well as Servo Motors
 a stepper motor will have high torque at low speeds, but low torque
at high speeds
 at low speeds - choppy unless the drive has micro stepping capability
 At higher speeds - not as choppy, but it does not have as much
torque
 At idle – has a higher holding torque than a servo motor of similar
size
 Stepper Motors are brushless so they are not prone to wear and
require no maintenance
Stepper Motor Speed-Torque Characteristics
As long as the load on the motor is less than the
torque it can deliver
• Steps will not be missed
if the load is too large or if the speed is more than
what the motor is capable of rotating,
• Steps may be missed
• All subsequent positions will be incorrect
● Stepper motors develop their maximum torque (holding torque)
• at zero angular velocity, when the rotor is stationary
 Torque developed with no power – (detent or residual torque)
 The useful torque (pull-out torque)
• depends on the way the stepper is externally wired and the drive power
signals used

http://www.tigertek.com/servo-motor-
resources/differences-between-servo-stepper-
motors.html

Advantages of Stepper Motors
Low cost
Can work in an open loop (no feedback required)
Excellent holding torque (eliminated brakes/clutches)
Excellent torque at low speeds
Low maintenance (brushless)
Very rugged - any environment
Excellent for precise positioning control
No tuning required

Disadvantages of Stepper Motors
Rough performance at low speeds unless you use micro stepping
Consume current regardless of load
Limited sizes available
Noisy
Torque decreases with speed (you need an oversized motor for higher torque at
higher speeds)
Stepper motors can stall or lose position running without a control loop

Direct Drive Motors
 Any motor — rotary or linear
• Load is connected directly to the motor, without mechanical transmission elements such as gearboxes
or belt and pulley systems
• The motor directly drives the load
 Similar in construction to brushless DC Motor or Stepper motor
 Designed to deliver very large torque at very low speeds with high resolution
 Used directly with a joint without any gear reduction
• Use of a transmission or gearbox is eliminated.
 This increases the efficiency and creates a quiet and highly dynamic operation\
 Suitable for high speed, acceleration applications with fast starts and stops
 A Direct Drive Motor can be used for various applications
• High positioning accuracy is needed.
• Moreover, these frameless motors are used for situations where small size, low weight, maximum
power and optimal speed control is desired.
 Very expensive and very heavy

Direct Drive Motors

Speed and Direction Control - PWM
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is commonly used in speed control of
DC motors
PWM uses a rectangular pulse train whose modulation results in the
average value of the pulse sequence.

Duty Cycle
• The duty cycle is defined as the percentage
of digital ‘high’ to
• digital ‘low’ plus digital ‘high’ pulse-width
during a PWM period
By varying the pulse-width

• we can vary the average voltage across a
DC motor and
• hence its speed

 The pulse rate of PWM may be 2-20 kHz,
 If the rate of PWM switching remains many times larger than natural frequency of the motor’s
rotor
• The switching will have little effect on the performance of the motor
 PWM can create an audible noise in a motor
 The voltage generated is low power and cannot directly run the motor
• it has to be used as input to a power transistor that controls the motor
• Theoretically , the power loss of the transistor is zero when it is off or fully on
• But, in reality, every time the transistor is turned on or off
o it takes a finite time for the voltage to build up or break down
• causing heat generation
 If frequency increases, heat generation increases
• Use transistors that have very fast switching capability (MOSFET)
 If, PWM rate increases, the back-emf voltage in the motor also increase
• insert a diode across the motor armature to protect the system
Direction control of DC Motor – H Bridge Circuit
changing of polarity for direction change
Change the motor direction
• Change the direction of current flow
• Change the bit (Usually 2 Bits) information from Microprocessor
Simple Circuit
• H-bridge

Direction control of DC Motor – H Bridge Circuit
if all four switches are off
• the rotor coasts freely
If SW1 and SW4 are connected
• current flows from A to B and
• the rotor rotates in one direction
if SW2 and SW3 are connected
• current flows from B to A and
• the rotor rotates in the opposite
direction
diodes are necessary to prevent damage to the circuitry during

switching

Non Traditional Actuators
Magnetostrictive Actuators
Shape-Memory Type Metals
Electroactive Polymer Actuators (EAP)

Drive Mechanisms (Power Transmission Systems)
To get linear and rotary motion
Rotary motions can be converted into linear
• Rack and Pinion Movements
• Ball Screws
• Gear Trains
• Harmonic Drive

Rack and pinion
Rack is fixed , The pinion will rotate
Rotary motion of the pinion will be converted into linear Motion

Ball Screws
Lead Screws used rotate to drive nuts
Because of friction and wear accuracy may reduced
Ball Bearing screws with low friction used in robots
Balls located between nuts and Screws
 Transmission efficiency about 90%

Gear Trains (Speed Reduction)
Rotational motion transferred from one to another
Speed can be decrease or increase
Types
• Spur
• Bevel
• Helical
• Worm and Worm Wheel
Reduction of speed , torque and angular velocity are possible
Sometimes positional errors due to backlash in gears

Spur Gears
Gears can be fitted externally or internally
Spur gear will rotate same direction in internal gearing
Opposite way in the external gearing
Clocks, gear box
Shafts are connected in parellel

Bevel Gears
Shafts are interconnected
Transmits power up to 900
Straight bevel gear
Spiral Bevel gear – Curved
teeth
• High load capacity
• 8 times faster

Helical Gear
Transfers high power
Connection of intersecting
shafts, Parallel or non parallel
teeth cut at an angle rather
than parallel to the axis
Less vibration
Used in automobile gearbox,
timing gear, IC engines shaft

Worm and Worm Wheel
Also called screw gear
Driver is worm and driven is worm wheel
Transmits high power and efficiency
very high gear reductions in a single stage (40: 1)
Steering gear box, Wind shield

Gearing Ratio
 Gearing is used to convert (low torque + high speed) into (high torque + low speed), or vice versa
 The gearing ratio is the value at which you change your velocity and torque
large gear
(N2 teeth)
shaft rotating at
high speed (1)
shaft rotating at
with torque (T1)
low speed (2)
small gear with torque (T2)
(N1 teeth)
   rotational speed (omega)

T1 T
 Speed :
1  N1   2  N 2 Torque :  2
N1 N 2

EX:
Torque_Old = 10 lb-in,
Velocity_Old = 100rps
If, Gearing ratio = 2/3

Then,
Torque * 2/3 = 6.7 lb-in Velocity * 3/2

= 150rps

Harmonic Drives
 Zero Backlash
 High Reduction Ratio
 For every 180 degree clockwise rotation of the Wave Generator the Flexspline teeth are advanced
counter clockwise by one tooth in relation to the circular Spline
 Each complete clockwise rotation of the Wave Generator results in the Flexspline moving counter-
clockwise by two teeth from its original position relative to the circular Spline

Harmonic Drives

Harmonic Drives

Backlash

Sensors
Sensor Classification
• Proprioceptive sensors (Internal Sensors)
o Measure values internal to the system (robot)
• e.g. motor speed, wheel load, robot arm joint angles, battery voltage
• Exteroceptive sensors (External Sensors)
o Acquire information from the robot’s environment
• e.g. distance measurements, light intensity, sound amplitude

Passive sensors
• Measure ambient environmental energy entering the sensor.
o Examples: temperature probes, microphones and CCD or CMOS cameras
Active sensors
• Emit energy into the environment, then measure the environmental reaction
o Examples: wheel quadrature encoders, ultrasonic sensors and laser rangefinders
• Superior Performance
• Risks:
o Outbound energy may affect the very characteristics that the sensor is
attempting to measure
o May suffer from interference between its signal and those beyond its
control
Obstacle avoidance
• Sensing dynamic or static obstacles
Localization
• Collecting data to determine the accurate position of the
robot
Navigation
• Directing the movement from one point to another

Major Classification

Characterizing Sensor Performance
Dynamic range
• Used to measure the spread between the lower and upper limits of inputs
values to the sensor
Resolution
• The minimum difference between two values that can be detected by a
sensor
Linearity
• Governing the behavior of the sensor’s output signal as the input signal varies
Bandwidth or Frequency
• Used to measure the speed with which a sensor can provide a stream of
readings

Heading Sensors (robots orientation and inclination)
Compasses
• Two most common modern sensors for measuring the direction of
a magnetic field
o Hall Effect
o Flux Gate

• Hall Effect
o describes the behavior of electric potential in a semiconductor when in
the presence of a magnetic field
o a single semiconductor provides a measurement of flux and direction
along one dimension

Hall effect digital compasses are popular in mobile robotics
• They contain two such semiconductors at right angles, providing two axes of
magnetic field direction, thereby yielding one of eight possible compass
directions
Disadvantages
• Resolution of a digital Hall effect compass is poor
• Internal sources of error at the semiconductor level
• The resulting circuitry must perform significant filtering, and this lowers the
bandwidth of Hall effect compasses to values that are slow in mobile robot
terms

 Flux Gate
• Two small coils are wound on ferrite cores and are fixed perpendicular to one another
• When alternating current is activated in both coils
o The magnetic field causes shifts in the phase depending on its relative alignment with
each coil
• By measuring both phase shifts
o The direction of the magnetic field in two dimensions can be computed
• Advantages:
o Accurately measure the strength of a magnetic field
o Improved resolution and
o accuracy
• Disadvantages:
o Larger
o More expensive than a Hall effect compass

 Inertial Sensors
• Gyroscope and Accelerometer
o An accelerometer
• Measures the inertia force generated
• when a mass is affected by a change in velocity
o A gyroscope
• Measures the rate of rotation independent of the coordinate frame
 Gyroscope
• Gyroscopes are heading sensors
• device used for measuring or maintaining orientation and angular velocity
• Two Categories
o Mechanical gyroscopes
o Optical gyroscopes

Mechanical gyroscopes
• Inertial properties of a fast spinning rotor
o Gyroscopic precession
• If you try to rotate a fast-spinning wheel
around its vertical axis, you will feel a harsh
reaction in the horizontal axis
• this is due to the angular momentum
associated with a spinning wheel and will
keep the axis of the gyroscope inertially
stable
o τ = IωΩ
• reactive torque τ
• spinning speed ω
• precession speed Ω
• wheel’s inertia I

For navigation,
• the spinning axis has to be initially selected
• If the spinning axis is aligned with the north-
south meridian, the earth’s rotation has no
effect on the gyro’s horizontal axis
• If it points east-west, the horizontal axis
reads the earth rotation

`

 Optical gyroscopes
• angular speed sensors that use two monochromatic light beams, or
lasers,
o emitted from the same source instead of moving, mechanical parts
• principle
o speed of light remains unchanged and, therefore, geometric
change can cause light to take a varying amount of time to reach its
destination
• One laser beam is sent traveling clockwise through a fiber while the other
travels counterclockwise
• will have a higher frequency – Shortest path
• The difference in frequency of the two beams is a proportional to the
angular velocity Ω of the cylinder
• Recent Devices
o Bandwidth 100KHz
o Resolution can be smaller than 0.0001°/hr
Accelerometer
 An accelerometers is a device used to measure all external forces acting upon it, including gravity
 accelerometer is a spring–mass–damper system (Conceptually)
F (applied) = F (inertial) + F (damping) + F (spring)
• m is the proof mass

• c is the damping coefficient
• k is the spring constant, and
• x is the equilibrium case relative position

When the stable value is reached, then and the applied
acceleration can be obtained as

Modern accelerometers
• Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) accelerometers consisting of a spring like
structure (cantilevered beam) with a proof mass
• When an external force is applied, the proof mass deflects from its neutral position
• Depending on the physical principle used to measure this deflection
• Capacitive accelerometers
o Measure the deflection by measuring the capacitance between a fixed structure and the proof
mass
• Piezoelectric accelerometers
o crystals to generate a voltage when a mechanical stress is applied to them
• Each accelerometer measures acceleration along a single axis
• By mounting three accelerometers orthogonally to one another, an omnidirectional (i.e.,
three-axis) accelerometer can be obtained

Accelerometers for static and dynamic measurements
Static
• low-pass accelerometers which can measure accelerations from 0 Hz up to usually 500 Hz
• typical for mechanical and capacitive accelerometers
• uses are measurements of the gravitational acceleration or that of a moving vehicle
Dynamic
• used for measuring accelerations of vibrating objects or accelerations during crashes
• bandwidth ranges between a few Hz up to 50 KHz
• realized with piezoelectric technology

Active Ranging sensors
obstacle detection and avoidance, most mobile robots rely heavily
Time-of-flight active ranging
• makes use of the propagation speed of sound or an electromagnetic wave
• travel distance of a sound of electromagnetic wave
d=c.t
o where
• d = distance traveled (usually round-trip);
• c = speed of wave propagation;
• t = time of flight
• Propagation speed of sound is approximately 0.3 m/ms
• speed of electromagnetic signals is 0.3 m/ns
o time of flight for a typical distance 3 m, is 10 ms for an ultrasonic system
o And 10 ns for a laser rangefinder

Active Ranging sensors
The quality of time-of-flight range sensors depends
mainly on
• uncertainties in determining the exact time of arrival of the reflected signal
• inaccuracies in the time-of-flight measurement
• the dispersal cone of the transmitted beam
• interaction with the target
• variation of propagation speed
• the speed of the mobile robot and target

The ultrasonic sensor (Time-of-flight, sound)
 Transmitting a packet of (ultrasonic) pressure waves and
 to measure the time it takes for this wave packet to reflect and return to the receiver
 The distance d can be calculated as,
• C = speed of sound wave

• T = time of flight
 and
• = ratio of specific heats

• R = gas constant
• T = temperature in degrees Kelvin

The ultrasonic sensor (Time-of-flight, sound)
Typical frequency between 40 and
180 kHz
It propagates at 340 m/s in the air at
15 ° C at standard atmosphere
when the sound wave encounters
an obstacle during the propagation
process
• the reflection will also occur
• When we measure the time difference
between the sound wave and the echo
o we can estimate the distance the sound
travels

Laser rangefinder (time-of-flight, electromagnetic)
 use of laser light instead of sound
 Transmitter
• Illuminates a target with a collimated beam (e.g., laser)
 Receiver
• Capable of detecting the component of light
• Properties of scattered light measured to find the range or other information
 referred to as optical radar or LIDAR (light detection and ranging)
 range estimate - time needed for the light to reach the target and return
 Phase-shift measurement

Laser rangefinder (time-of-flight, electromagnetic)
 The sensor transmits 100% amplitude-modulated light at a known frequency
 And measures the phase shift between the transmitted and reflected signals
 Wavelength is calculated by the expression
• C is the speed of light and f the modulating frequency

Temperature Sensor
Used to measure the temperature
Uses the converter to convert the temperature value to an electrical value
Different types
• Thermocouple Sensor
• Thermistor Sensor
• Resistance Temperature Detector
• Infrared Sensors
• Temperature Sensor IC

Thermocouple Sensor
 Composed of the two different metal alloy wires
 Welded together at the ends
 Welded portion was creating the junction where the temperature is used to be measured
 Measuring the temperature in the form of an electric current or the EMF
See back Effect –
• The See back effect occurs between two different metals
• When the heat provides to any one of the metal
o the electrons start flowing from hot metal to cold metal
• Thus, direct current induces in the circuit
• Temperature difference between the two different metals induces the potential differences between
them

Thermocouple Sensor

Thermocouple Sensor
Advantages of Thermocouple
• Cheaper than the other temperature measuring devices
• Fast response time
• Wide temperature range
Disadvantages of the Thermocouples
• Low accuracy
• The recalibration of the thermocouple is difficult
Nickel-alloy, platinum/rhodium alloy, Tungsten/rhenium-alloy, chromel-gold, iron-
alloy are the name of the alloys used for making the thermocouple

Thermistor Sensor
Kind of resistor whose resistivity depends on surrounding temperature
Variation in the thermistor resistance shows that either conduction or power
dissipation occurs in the thermistor
The thermistor is classified into types
• Negative Temperature Coefficient Thermistor
o In this type of thermistor the temperature increases with the decrease of the
resistance.
o The resistance is very large due to which it detects the small variation in temperature
• Positive Temperature Coefficient Thermistor
o The resistance of the thermistor increases with the increases in temperature

Thermistor Sensor

Thermistor Sensor
Advantages of Thermistor
• The thermistor is compact, long durable and less
expensive
• The properly aged thermistor has good stability
• The response time of the thermistor changes from
seconds to minutes
• The upper thermistor limit of the temperature depends
on the physical variation of the material, and the lower
temperature depends on the resistance reaching a large
value

RTD
 Temperature sensors with a resistor that changes the resistive value simultaneously with
temperature changes
 Measures temperature by correlating the resistance of the RTD element with temperature
 RTD consists of a film or a wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core
 Most expensive of temperature sensors (High Accuracy)
 Used in a wide temperature range from -500C to 5000C for thin film and for the wire wound
variety the range is from the +2000C to 8500C

Semiconductor-based sensors
• Placed on integrated circuits (ICs)
• two identical diodes with temperature-sensitive voltage vs current
characteristics that can be used to monitor changes in temperature
• linear response
• lowest accuracy at 1 °C to 5 °C
• slowest responsiveness (5 s to 60 s) across the narrowest temperature
range (-70 °C to 150 °C)

Path Planning

Joint Space Vs Cartesian Space
Joint-space - The description of
the motion to be made by the
robot by its joint values
Cartesian-space - The
sequence of movements the
robot makes is described in
Cartesian-space and is
converted to joint-space
• Very easy to visualize
• difficult to visually ensure that
singularities will not occur

Trajectory Planning
Joint-space, non-normalized movements Joint-space, normalized movements

Trajectory Planning
Cartesian-space movements Trajectory planning with an acceleration/deceleration

regiment

Trajectory Planning

Trajectory Planning

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EC8064 – Robotics and Automation

AUG 2021 – NOV 2021

SRRK, Robotics and Automation, AUG 2021 – NOV 2021

SRRK, Robotics and Automation, AUG 2021 – NOV 2021

SRRK, Robotics and Automation, AUG 2021 – NOV 2021

UNIT IV NAVIGATION, PATH PLANNING AND CONTROL ARCHITECTURE 9

SRRK, Robotics and Automation, AUG 2021 – NOV 2021

1. Saeed. B. Niku, Introduction to Robotics, Analysis, system, Applications, Pearson

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SRRK, Robotics and Automation, AUG 2021 – NOV 2021

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• Where kt is torque constant

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 Assume that there is no power loss

• voltage E is proportional to the angular velocity of the motor ꙍ

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• Substituting Equations and rearranging

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L/R is called motor reactance

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Robots would require a geared DC motor

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 Nominal no-load speed - the back-emf is large enough

 At maximum ꙍ, the output torque is zero

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Disadvantages of Servo Motors

 More expensive than stepper motors

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4-pole, 6-tooth rotor hybrid stepper motor

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By varying the pulse-width

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diodes are necessary to prevent damage to the circuitry during

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