Free Radical Theory

The free radical theory proposes that ageing is the cumulative result of oxidative damage to the
cells and tissues of the body that arises primarily as a result of aerobic metabolism. Several lines
of evidence have been used to support this hypothesis including the claims that: (1) variation in
species life span is correlated with metabolic rate and protective antioxidant activity; (2)
enhanced expression of antioxidative enzymes in experimental animals can produce a significant
increase in longevity; (3) cellular levels of free radical damage increases with age; and (4)
reduced calorie intake leads to a decline in the production of reactive oxygen species and an
increase in life span. The free radical theory may also be used to explain many of the structural
features that develop with ageing including the lipid peroxidation of membranes, formation of
age pigments, cross-linkage of proteins, DNA damage and decline of mitochondrial function.
Despite this, many uncertainties concerning the role of oxidative damage in ageing remain and
alternative explanations cannot be ruled out. Free radicals only occur in trace quantities in
biological tissues, their cellular levels and actions cannot be measured in vivo, and definitive
proof that oxidised molecules are the primary cause of ageing is lacking. Moreover, ageing is
also likely to be a multifactorial process and not reducible to any one single cause. Thus, despite
its positive features, the evidence for the free radical theory is either correlative or inconclusive.

The free radical theory of aging posits that aging is caused by accumulation of damage inflicted
by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Although this concept has been very useful in defining the
contribution of oxidative damage to the aging process, an increasing number of studies
contradict it. The idea that oxidative damage represents only one of many causes of aging also
has limitations, as it does not explain causal relationships and inevitability of damage
accumulation. Here, it is discussed that infidelity, heterogeneity, and imperfectness of each and
every biological process may be responsible for the inevitable accumulation of by-products and
other damage forms. Although ROS are prototypical by-products, their contribution to aging is
governed by the metabolic organization of the cell, its protective systems, and genotype. These
factors are controlled by natural selection and, like dietary and genetic interventions that extend
lifespan, change the composition of cumulative damage and the rates of accumulation of its
various forms. Oxidative damage, like other specific damage types viewed in isolation or in
combination, does not represent the cause of aging. Instead, biological imperfectness, which
leads to inevitable accumulation of damage in the form of mildly deleterious molecular species,
may help define the true root of aging. Free radical and other specialized damage theories
served their purpose in the understanding of the aging process, but in the current form they
limit further progress in this area. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 20, 727–731.
 Activity Theory

The activity theory, also known as the implicit theory of aging, normal theory of aging, and lay
theory of aging, proposes that successful ageing occurs when older adults stay active and maintain
social interactions. It takes the view that the aging process is delayed and the quality of life is
enhanced when old people remain socially active. The activity theory rose in opposing response to
the disengagement theory.] The activity theory and the disengagement theory were the two major
theories that outlined successful aging in the early 1960s. The theory was developed by Robert J.
Havighurst in 1961. In 1964, Bernice Neugarten asserted that satisfaction in old age depended on
active maintenance of personal relationships and endeavors.
The theory assumes a positive relationship between activity and life satisfaction. One author
suggests that activity enables older adults adjust to retirement and is named “the busy ethic”.
The critics of the activity theory state that it overlooks inequalities in health and economics that
hinders the ability for older people to engage in such activities. Also, some older adults do not desire
to engage in new challenges.
Activity theory reflects the functionalist perspective that the equilibrium that an individual develops in
middle age should be maintained in later years. The theory predicts that older adults that face role
loss will substitute former roles with other alternatives.
The activity theory is one of three major psychosocial theories which describe how people develop
in old age. The other two psychosocial theories are the disengagement theory, with which the
activity comes to odds, and the continuity theory which modifies and elaborates upon the activity
theory.
Though in recent years the acceptance activity theory has diminished, it is still used as a standard to
compare observed activity and life satisfaction patterns.

Example of Activity Theory

 An individual who worked for 30 years as a medical doctor retires but starts to volunteer
at a domestic violence shelter in a client support capacity.