TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
PASCHIMANCHAL CAMPUS

Local control charging strategy of EV for maximum utilization of the existing

electrical network.

By

Nikesh Manandhar
075 MSDGE 009

A
THESIS PROPOSAL
SUBMITTED TO
THE DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERNIG
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE
DEGREE OF MASTER IN DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

POKHARA, NEPAL

SEPTEMBER, 2021
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ii

LIST OF TABLES ii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS iv
CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Scope and Limitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
CHAPTER TWO : LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
CHAPTER THREE : METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1 Local Control Charging strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 Network Sensitivities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 Network Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3.1 Distribution Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3.2 Residential Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3.3 Electric Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.4 Flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
CHAPTER FOUR : EXPECTED RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.1 Residential Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2 Uncoordinated Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.3 LCC Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
CHAPTER FIVE : WORK SCHEDULE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Dedicated EV charging at home, Birtamod DCS, NEA . . . . . . . 6

Figure 3.1 Maximum EV Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Figure 3.2 LCC Control Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Figure 4.1 Residential Load Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Figure 4.2 Uncoordinated EV charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Figure 4.3 EV charging with LCC Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Figure 5.1 Time Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 NEA Tariff for Charging Station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Table 1.2 NEA TOD Tariff for Charging Station Wet Season . . . . . . . . . 6
Table 1.3 NEA TOD Tariff for Charging Station Dry Season . . . . . . . . . 6

Table 3.1 EV Specification available in Nepal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AMI Advanced Metering Infrastructure

CPOC Consumer Point of Connection
DCS Distribution and Consumer Services
DoTM Department of Transport Management
EV Electric Vehicles
EVAN Electric Vehicle Association of Nepal
LCC Local Control Charging
NEA Nepal Electricity Authority
V2G Vehicle to Grid

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
As per the data obtained from the Department of Transport Management(DoTM), Nepal
is witnessing an annual growth of 16% in the total vehicles registered within its territory.
With rapid urbanization, the annual growth rate is expected to rise in the future. Over 3.5
million vehicles are registered in Nepal by 2019. Among these over 90% are passenger
vehicles, 96% of which are privately owned and only 4% are contributed by public ve-
hicles. Although Nepal is aggressively adopting to EV vehicles, till date only 1% of the
total vehicle fleet in Nepal is actually electric. Other 99% are petroleum based.[1]
To promote EV, diesel based three-wheeler were completely banned in Kathmandu
Valley in the year 2000, which were replaced by Safa Tempos. Initially started with 7
tempos their number dramatically increased to 700 after the diesel based three-wheeler
ban in 2000. As per DoTM records, a total of 26,466 e-rickshaws are registered in Nepal
by 2019. Similarly, EV has also started to penetrate the private sector after the 2015
blockade imposed over Nepal, which saw a huge petroleum product shortage. As per data
from EVAN(Electric Vehicle Association of Nepal) 6000 two wheeler and 1000 EV cars
are currently operational in Nepal.
As per the annual report of Nepal Rastra Bank(NRB), petroleum products contribute
to 13.68% of the total commodities imported in Nepal in the year 2019/2020. In the fis-
cal year 2019/2020 petroleum products worth Rs. 1,63,702 million rupees was imported,
making it one of the major contributors to Nepal’s trade deficit[2]. In contrast total rev-
enue collected by NEA in the fiscal year 2020/2021 is Rs. 70,997 million rupees[3].
In order to promote EV in Nepal, NEA has recently made major policies change in
its tariff rates by including a separated tariff rate for EV charging station. By reducing
the tariff during the off peak load time, NEA plan to sell the excess energy at night time
thereby flattening its own load curve.

Table 1.1: NEA Tariff for Charging Station

Voltage Level in kV Demand Charge Energy Charge

0.23/0.4 200 5.75
33 230 5.60
11 230 5.60

5
 Table 1.2: NEA TOD Tariff for Charging Station Wet Season

Energy Charge
Voltage Level in kV Demand Charge
Peak Hour Off Hour Normal Hour
17:00 to 23:00 23:00 to 5:00 5:00 to 17:00
33 230 7 3.70 5.50
11 230 7.15 4.20 5.60
0.23/0.4 230 7.25 4.30 5.75

Table 1.3: NEA TOD Tariff for Charging Station Dry Season

Energy Charge
Voltage Level in kV Demand Charge
Peak Hour Normal Hour
17:00 to 23:00 23:00 to 17:00
33 230 7 5.50
11 230 7.15 5.60
0.23/0.4 200 7.25 5.75

Figure 1.1: Dedicated EV charging at home, Birtamod DCS, NEA

Although, such tariff structure helps to shift EV charging during night time, at higher
penetration of EV some form of coordinated charging has to be employed.

6
1.2 Problem Statement
The introduction of EV in the electrical grid is an addition of electrical load. High penetra-
tion of EV in the electrical grid and uncoordinated charging of EV can lead to preventable
overloading of the existing electrical grid.

1.3 Objective
A. Local control charging strategy of EV for maximum utilization of the existing elec-
trical network.

1.4 Scope and Limitation

A. EV as a energy storage technology and working in Vehicle to Grid(V2G) mode
discharging power to the electrical grid during peak load is not considered in this
study.

B. Centralized EV charging controller where all the EV connected to the electrical grid
are also connected to each other via a communication network infrastructure is not
considered in this study.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Transportation accounts for 13% of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emis-
sions [4]. These GHG are drastically affecting the climate change of planet earth. Thus,
in order to control the GHG emissions from the transportation industry, whole world is
trying to promote other form of transportation like EV, Hydrogen Vehicles. EV technol-
ogy is being promoted aggressively all around the globe. With this promising rise of EV
technology lots of research has been done in this area.
In [5] the authors have discussed about the impacts of high penetration of EV on the
distribution system. The electrical grid is designed to meet the system peak and during
the off peak time the grid is under utilized. If the load is mostly residential load then
their is substantial reduction of consumption during the night. Hence, EV charging can
be introduced as off-peak load in the electrical grid. Rapid charging profile, which can
charge the vehicle within 3 hours and a diversified charging profile, which take longer
time to charge the vehicle are analyzed against the 24 hour load curve of the residential
load. For the diversified charging profile upto 50% penetration of EV has no significant
effect on the peak load of the system and the vehicle are charged during the off peak load.
However, if rapid charging profile is used EV penetration level as low as 25% have a
significant effect on the peak load of the system. The authors have thus concluded that
for proper utilization of the electrical grid to support EV some form of smart charging
technology has to be implemented. However, how to achieve this smart charging hasn’t
been discussed.
In [6] the authors have discussed about the impacts of EV charging it terms of power
losses and voltage deviation. They too have emphasized on the need of coordinated charg-
ing method to minimize the power losses and voltage deviation. Here, the authors have
emphasized that since most vehicle are parked during the night time they are recharged
at home through the standard electric outlet present in home. Here an optimal charging
profile is calculated which minimizes the power losses and voltage deviation. A direct
coordination of the charging will be done by smart metering and by sending signals to the
individual vehicles.
In [7] the authors have compared the Local control vs Centralized control method.
In Centralized control method, a networking infrastructure helps to monitor the voltage,
line loading of each at every CPOC. This information is sent to a centralized controller
which incorporates additional network information to determine dispatch signals at each
time step for the individual EV charger units accordingly. The objective function used
in the Centralized Control is weighted according to the current BSOC of each individ-
ual EV. This weighting provides a more even distribution of energy to charging EVs and
prioritizes EVs with a low BSOC. In contrast to this, in the Local control method, the
underlying networking infrastructure can be completely avoided. Each EV charger max-
imizes its charging profile individually according to the voltage at its CPOC only. How-
8
ever, in this study of Local control, the author haven’t considered the BSOC of the EV in
the optimizing function. The results obtained from this study indicate that the local con-
trol method allows a far greater penetration of EV charging on a feeder than that which
could be accommodated with uncontrolled charging. While the technique can deliver a
similar amount of energy to the EVs within a certain time period when compared to the
centralized control method, it is not as capable at maintaining network parameters within
specified limits and may require larger safety margins.
In [8], the authors have presented an optimal charging profile for EV, which can help
to improve battery life by reducing the rate of change in battery internal resistance, slow-
ing down the rate of capacity fade and reducing the average battery temperature through
charging. The optimal charging profile comprises the charger charging for a pre-set lim-
ited time and stop for limited time (rest period) and repeat until charging is complete.
In [9] the authors have focused on understanding the status of electric vehicle devel-
opment and examining the role of government policies, vehicle technical features and the
development of infrastructure in the private EV promotion in Kathmandu Valley. They
have forecasted the EV market within Kathmandu valley to reach upto 10, 00, 000 within
2022.

9
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Local Control Charging strategy

In Local Control Charging (LCC) strategy, each EV charger work alone and don’t commu-
nicate with the other EV charger installed in the network. This relieves the DSO to make
a communication infrastructure network. The objective of LCC strategy is to maximize
the amount of power delivered by the individual charger subjected to certain constraints.
The objective function of LCC strategy is by 3.1

M aximize LCC = PEV x (3.1)

Where,
PEV - Power deliverd by the EV charger
x - constant which take two value 0 and 1.

The above optimization problem has following constraints:-

0 ≤ PEV ≤ PEVmax (3.2)

PEVmax is the maximum rated output of the EV charger. The power delivered by the EV
charger can vary in a continuous manner defined by Equation 3.2
t−1 t t−1
PEV − 4 ≤ PEV ≤ PEV +4 (3.3)

t is the current time step and 4 is predefined limit in kW by which the charging rate can
vary. Equation 3.3 helps to avoid large variation in charger output.

Vmin ≤ VCP OC ≤ Vmax (3.4)

At the end of every time interval, the EV charger checks the voltage at its Consumer Point
of Connection(CPOC). The voltage at each CPOC has to be maintained within the range
of Equation 3.4

LSC ≤ LSCmax (3.5)

Similary, at the end of every time interval, the EV charger also checks loading on the
service cable of the customer. The loading at each CPOC has to be maintained within the
range of Equation 3.5

10
3.2 Network Sensitivities
For the LCC strategy, the network voltage and loading sensitivities due to the addition of
the EV has to be predetermined. A series of unbalanced 3 phase load flow calculation
are performed on the test network to predetermine them. From the load flow calculation
the change in voltage and loading at all points on the network subject to the addition of
EV load at each CPOC. . The sensitivity values for the voltage and loading assigned to
a charging unit are the summation of all the voltage and loading sensitivities at all other
CPOCs on the feeder respectively. This fixed sensitivity value is used in conjunction with
the CPOC voltage and service cable loading measurements at each time step in order to
determine the optimal charging rate for the EV. The constraint equations for the CPOC
voltage and service cable loading are summarized as

Vmin ≤ Vinit + µPEV ≤ Vmax (3.6)

LSCinit + βPEV ≤ LSCmax (3.7)

Where,

Vinit - Initial voltage at the CPOC

µ(V /kW ) - Voltage sesitivity
LSC - Initial loading at the CPOC
β(A/kW ) - Loading Sensitivity

3.3 Network Modelling

In order to demonstrate the LCC strategy, the following elements of the network has to be
modeled in a suitable simulation software.

3.3.1 Distribution Network

Since, this research targets to study the LCC strategy for private EV which shall be
charged in a residential home from the power outlet of the residential home, a suitable
low voltage distribution network of 400 V has to be modeled. The distribution network
employed by NEA usually consists of 200 to 300 KVA, 11/0.4 kV transformer supply-
ing around 100 homes. On avg. the length of the secondary distribution system is 3 km
having varing sizes of conductor. Line data for such distribution network can be obtained
from Distribution and Consumer Services office(DCS) of NEA. Similar distribution net-
work from Maharajgung DCS will be selected for study. Maharajgung DCS is selected
because it has already installed smart meter for all its consumers. Hence, data collection
for residential load can be obtained from AMI.

3.3.2 Residential Load

Load data for the Residential load under a particular secondary distribution network can
be obtained from the AMI and installed smart meters.

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3.3.3 Electric Vehicle
Currently, a number of EV choices are available in the Nepalese market. However, for the
purpose of this study, EV having a battery capacity of 40 kWh, charger capacity of 7 kW
and charging time of 6 hours is considered.

Table 3.1: EV Specification available in Nepal

EV Model Battery Capacity(kWh) Charging Time Charger Capacity (kW)
Hyundai KONA 64 9 hours 35 min 7
Hyundai Ioniq EV 38.3 6 hours 10 min 7
Kia Niro EV 64 9 hours 7
Peugeot Partner Tepee 22 6 hours 5
BYD All-New e6 70 12 hours 7

3.4 Flowchart

Start

Data Collection for

Distribution Network

Modelling in sim-
Increase EV Penetration
ulation software

are all EV
yes at 100%
BSOC?

no

Maximim EV pen-
etration reached

stop

Figure 3.1: Maximum EV Penetration

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 Start

Data collection for

Distribution Network

Modelling in sim-
ulation software

Load flow analysis

Determine µ and β

LCC Control Strategy

is BSOC at yes
Stop
100% ?

no

Decrease PEV Voltage

no
with BSOC pri- limit Increase PEV
yes
ority cosideration voilation?

Figure 3.2: LCC Control Strategy

13
 CHAPTER FOUR

EXPECTED RESULTS

4.1 Residential Load

Most of the Residential load are operated by 16 to 32 A energy meter. However, the
loading pattern rarely reach the maximum allowable demand. Residential load generally
consists of lighting load, cooking appliance, cooling appliance, television etc. Almost all
load except few lighting load are active during the night time. Few cooking appliance
consumes energy during the morning and evening hours. At all other times the load is
low. This gives rises to load curve having two peaks during the morning and evening
time. The data collected from the AMI will follow the pattern as shown in Figure 4.1.

4
Demand

3
Demand in kW

0
0 5 10 15 20
hours)

Figure 4.1: Residential Load Curve

4.2 Uncoordinated Charging

In case of an uncoordinated EV charging condition, the EV are charged as soon as the
EV has returned to home at around 16 : 00. This will clearly coincide with the peak load
during the evening peak.
Figure 4.2 shows an example of uncoordinated EV charging. Here, the EV is charged
for 5 hours at 7 kW. Total energy delivered to the battery is 28 kWh considering 80%
efficiency.

14
 Without EV EV
15 Total

Demand in kW
10

0
0 5 10 15 20
hours)

Figure 4.2: Uncoordinated EV charging

4.3 LCC Control Strategy

When the LCC Control Strategy is applied, instead of charging the vehicle at a constant 7
kW power, the power of the controller is depended on the system voltage and the loading
of the service cable. When load increases, there is a slight dip in the voltage at CPOC.
This is sensed by the charger and it reduces its output power thereby controlling the total
power consumed in total.

6
Without EV EV LCC
Total
Demand in kW

0
0 5 10 15 20
hours)

Figure 4.3: EV charging with LCC Strategy

Figure 4.3 shows an example of coordinated EV charging. Here, the EV is charged

form 17 : 00 hour to 6 : 00 hour at varying power. Total energy delivered to the battery is
24 kWh considering 80% efficiency.

15
 CHAPTER FIVE

WORK SCHEDULE

Figure 5.1: Time Schedule

16
 REFERENCES

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Determined Contributions (NDC), 2021.

[2] G. of Nepal, Annual Report Nepal Rastra Bank, 2021.

[3] NEA, Annual Report Nepal Electricity Authority, 2021.

[4] S. Hankey and J. D. Marshall, “Impacts of urban form on future us passenger-vehicle

greenhouse gas emissions,” Energy Policy, vol. 38, no. 9, pp. 4880–4887, 2010.

[5] K. Schneider, C. Gerkensmeyer, M. Kintner-Meyer, and R. Fletcher, “Impact assess-

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energy in the 21st century. IEEE, 2008, pp. 1–6.

[6] K. Clement-Nyns, E. Haesen, and J. Driesen, “The impact of charging plug-in hy-
brid electric vehicles on a residential distribution grid,” IEEE Transactions on power
systems, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 371–380, 2009.

[7] P. Richardson, D. Flynn, and A. Keane, “Local versus centralized charging strategies
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[8] A. A. A. Al-karakchi, G. Lacey, and G. Putrus, “A method of electric vehicle charging

to improve battery life,” in 2015 50th International Universities Power Engineering
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[9] S. Paudel, G. R. Pokharel, N. Bhattarai, and S. Shrestha, “Evaluating the effect of

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