Taylor Grino - Biology 101 Chapter 16 Lecture

Chapter 16
Microbial Life: Prokaryotes and Protists

PowerPoint Lectures
Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, Eighth Edition
REECE • TAYLOR • SIMON • DICKEY • HOGAN
© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko
Introduction
• Microorganisms residing in and on your body

outnumber your own cells 10 to 1: 100 trillion
bacteria, archaea, and protists call your body
home.
• Scientists hypothesize that disrupting our microbial
communities may
• increase our susceptibility to infectious diseases,
• predispose us to certain cancers, and
• contribute to conditions such as asthma and other
allergies, irritable bowel syndrome, Crohn’s
disease, and autism.
Figure 16.0-0

Figure 16.0-1

Figure 16.0-2
Chapter 16: Big Ideas
Prokaryotes Protists

PROKARYOTES

16.1 Prokaryotes are diverse and widespread
• Prokaryotic cells are smaller than eukaryotic cells.

• Prokaryotes range from 1 to 5 µm in diameter.
• Eukaryotes range from 10 to 100 µm in diameter.
• The collective biomass of prokaryotes is at least
10 times that of all eukaryotes.

Figure 16.1

• Prokaryotes live in habitats

• too cold,
• too hot,
• too salty,
• too acidic, and
• too alkaline for eukaryotes to survive.
• Some bacteria are pathogens, causing disease.
• But most bacteria on our bodies are benign or
beneficial.

• Our microbiota consists of the community of

microorganisms that live in and on our bodies.
• Each of us harbors several hundred different species
and genetic strains of prokaryotes, including a few
whose positive effects are well studied.
• Some intestinal bacteria supply essential vitamins and
enable us to extract nutrition from food molecules that
we can’t otherwise digest.
• Many of the bacteria that live on our skin perform helpful
housekeeping functions such as decomposing dead
skin cells.
• Other prokaryotes guard against pathogenic intruders.
• Prokaryotes in soil help to decompose dead

organisms and other organic waste material, which
return vital chemical elements to the environment.
• If prokaryotes were to disappear,
• the chemical cycles that sustain life would halt and
• all forms of eukaryotic life would be doomed.

• There are two very different kinds of prokaryotes,

which are classified in different domains.
1. Archaea
2. Bacteria

16.2 External features contribute to the
success of prokaryotes
• Prokaryotic cells have three common cell shapes.

1. Cocci are spherical prokaryotic cells. They
sometimes occur in chains that are called
streptococci.
2. Bacilli are rod-shaped prokaryotes. Bacilli may
also be threadlike, or filamentous.
3. Spiral prokaryotes are like a corkscrew.
• Short and rigid prokaryotes are called spirilla.
• Longer, more flexible cells are called spirochetes.

Figure 16.2a-0
Cocci Bacilli Spirochete

Figure 16.2a-1
Cocci

Figure 16.2a-2
Bacilli

Figure 16.2a-3
Spirochete

• Nearly all prokaryotes have a cell wall. Cell walls

• provide physical protection and
• prevent the cell from bursting in a hypotonic
environment.
• When stained with Gram stain, cell walls of
bacteria are either
• gram-positive, with simpler cell walls containing
peptidoglycan, or
• gram-negative, with less peptidoglycan. These
bacteria are more complex and more likely to cause
disease.
Figure 16.2b

• The cell wall of many prokaryotes is covered by a

capsule, a sticky layer of polysaccharides or
protein.
• The capsule
• enables prokaryotes to adhere to their substrate or
to other individuals in a colony and
• shields pathogenic prokaryotes from attacks by
their host’s immune system.

Figure 16.2c
Capsule
Tonsil cell
Bacterium

• Some prokaryotes have external structures that

extend beyond the cell wall.
• Flagella are adaptations that enable them to move
about in response to chemical or physical signals in
their environment.
• Hairlike projections called fimbriae enable
prokaryotes to
• stick to a surface or each other or
• latch onto the host cells they colonize.

Figure 16.2d
Flagella
Fimbriae

16.3 Populations of prokaryotes can adapt
rapidly to changes in the environment
• Prokaryote population growth

• occurs by binary fission,
• can rapidly produce a new generation within hours,
and
• can generate a great deal of genetic variation by
spontaneous mutations, increasing the likelihood
that some members of the population will survive
changes in the environment.

• The genome of a prokaryote typically

• has about one-thousandth as much DNA as a
eukaryotic genome and
• is one long, circular chromosome packed into a
distinct region of the cell.
• Many prokaryotes also have additional small,
circular DNA molecules called plasmids, which
replicate independently of the chromosome.

Figure 16.3a
Chromosome Plasmids

• Some prokaryotes form specialized cells called

endospores that remain dormant through harsh
conditions.
• Endospores can survive extreme heat or cold.
• When the endospore receives environmental cues
that conditions have improved, it
• absorbs water and
• resumes growth.

Figure 16.3b
Bacterium
Endospores

16.4 Prokaryotes have unparalleled
nutritional diversity
• Prokaryotes exhibit much more nutritional diversity

than eukaryotes, allowing them to inhabit almost
every nook and cranny on Earth.
• Two sources of energy are used.
1. Phototrophs capture energy from sunlight.
2. Chemotrophs harness the energy stored in
chemicals.

• Two sources of carbon are used by prokaryotes.

• Autotrophs obtain carbon atoms from carbon
dioxide.
• Heterotrophs obtain their carbon atoms from the
organic compounds present in other organisms.

• The terms that describe how prokaryotes obtain

energy and carbon are combined to describe their
modes of nutrition.
• Photoautotrophs harness sunlight for energy and use
CO2 for carbon.
• Photoheterotrophs obtain energy from sunlight but get
their carbon atoms from organic sources.
• Chemoautotrophs harvest energy from inorganic
chemicals and use carbon from CO2 to make organic
molecules.
• Chemoheterotrophs acquire energy and carbon from
organic molecules.
Figure 16.4-0
ENERGY SOURCE
Sunlight Chemicals
Photoautotrophs Chemoautotrophs
CO2
SOURCE
Oscillatoria Unidentified “rock-eating” bacteria

Photoheterotrophs
Chemoheterotrophs
CARBON
Organic compounds
Salmonella typhimurium
Rhodopseudomonas

Figure 16.4-1
Photoautotrophs
Oscillatoria

Figure 16.4-2
Photoheterotrophs
Rhodopseudomonas

Figure 16.4-3
Chemoautotrophs
Unidentified “rock-eating” bacteria

Figure 16.4-4
Chemoheterotrophs

16.5 CONNECTION: Biofilms are complex
associations of microbes
• Biofilms are highly organized colonies that attach

to surfaces.
• Biofilms consist of one or several species of
prokaryotes and may also include protists and
fungi.
• Biofilms can form on most any support, including
rocks, soil, organic material, or the surface of
stagnant water.

• Biofilm formation begins when prokaryotes secrete

signaling molecules that attract nearby cells into a
cluster.
• Once the cluster becomes sufficiently large, the
cells produce a gooey coating that glues them to
the support and to each other, making the biofilm
extremely difficult to dislodge.

• Biofilms
• communicate by chemical signals,
• coordinate the division of labor, and
• collectively defend against invaders.
• Channels in the biofilm allow
• nutrients to reach cells in the interior,
• wastes to leave, and
• a variety of environments to develop within it.

Figure 16.5

16.6 CONNECTION: Prokaryotes help clean
up the environment
• Prokaryotes are useful for cleaning up

contaminants in the environment because
prokaryotes
• have great nutritional diversity,
• are quickly adaptable, and
• can form biofilms.

up the environment
• Bioremediation is the use of organisms to remove

pollutants from
• soil,
• air, or
• water.

up the environment
• Prokaryotic decomposers are the mainstays of

sewage treatment facilities.
• Raw sewage is first passed through a series of
screens and shredders.
• Solid matter then settles out from the liquid waste,
forming sludge.
• Sludge is gradually added to a culture of anaerobic
prokaryotes, including bacteria and archaea.
• The microbes decompose the organic matter into
material that can be placed in a landfill or used as
fertilizer.
up the environment
• Liquid wastes are treated separately from the

sludge.
• Liquid wastes are sprayed onto a thick bed of
rocks.
• Biofilms of aerobic bacteria and fungi growing on
the rocks remove much of the dissolved organic
material.
• Fluid draining from the rocks is sterilized and then
released, usually into a river or ocean.

Figure 16.6a-0
Rotating
spray arm
Rock bed coated
with aerobic
prokaryotes
and fungi
Liquid wastes Outflow

Figure 16.6a-1
Rotating
spray arm
Rock bed coated

with aerobic
prokaryotes
and fungi
Liquid wastes Outflow

Figure 16.6a-2
Rotating Rock bed coated

spray arm with aerobic
prokaryotes
and fungi

up the environment
• Bioremediation is becoming a useful tool for

cleaning up toxic chemicals released into the soil
and water.
• Environmental workers may change the natural
environment to accelerate the activity of naturally
occurring prokaryotes capable of metabolizing
pollutants.

Figure 16.6b

16.7 Bacteria and archaea are the two main
branches of prokaryotic evolution
• New studies of representative genomes of

prokaryotes and eukaryotes strongly support the
three-domain view of life.
• Eukaryotes belong to the domain Eukarya.
• Prokaryotes are now classified into two domains:
1. Bacteria and
2. Archaea.

Table 16.7

16.8 Archaea thrive in extreme
environments—and in other habitats
• Archaeal inhabitants of extreme environments

have unusual proteins and other molecular
adaptations that enable them to metabolize and
reproduce effectively.
• Extreme halophiles thrive in very salty places.
• Extreme thermophiles thrive in
• very hot water, such as geysers, and
• acid pools.

Figure 16.8a

16.8 Archaea thrive in extreme
environments—and in other habitats
• Methanogens
• live in anaerobic environments and
• give off methane as a waste product from
• the digestive tracts of cattle and deer and
• decomposing materials in landfills.

Figure 16.8b

16.9 Bacteria include a diverse assemblage
of prokaryotes
• The domain Bacteria is currently divided into five

groups, based on comparisons of genetic
sequences.
1. Proteobacteria
• are all gram-negative,
• share a particular rRNA sequence, and
• represent all four modes of nutrition.

of prokaryotes
• Thiomargarita namibiensis is a type of

photoautotrophic species of proteobacteria that
• uses H2S to generate organic molecules from CO2
and
• produces sulfur wastes, seen as small greenish
globules in the following figure.

Figure 16.9a

of prokaryotes
• Proteobacteria also include Rhizobium species

that
• live symbiotically in root nodules of legumes and
• convert atmospheric nitrogen gas into a form
usable by their legume host.
• Symbiosis is a close association between
organisms of two or more species.
• Endosymbiosis refers to one species, called the
endosymbiont, living within another.
• Rhizobium is an endosymbiont.
of prokaryotes
2. Gram-positive bacteria
• Gram-positive bacteria rival proteobacteria in
diversity and include the actinomycetes common in
soil.
• Streptomyces are often cultured by pharmaceutical
companies as a source of many antibiotics,
including streptomycin.

Figure 16.9b

of prokaryotes
3. Cyanobacteria
• Cyanobacteria are the only group of prokaryotes
with plantlike, oxygen-generating photosynthesis.
• Some species, such as Anabaena, have
specialized cells that fix nitrogen.

Figure 16.9c
Photosynthetic
cells
Capsule
Nitrogen-fixing cells

of prokaryotes
4. Chlamydias
• Chlamydias live inside eukaryotic host cells.
• Chlamydia trachomatis
• is a common cause of blindness in developing
countries and
• causes nongonococcal urethritis, the most common
sexually transmitted disease in the United States.

Figure 16.9d

of prokaryotes
5. Spirochetes are
• helical bacteria and
• notorious pathogens, causing
• syphilis and
• Lyme disease.

Figure 16.9e

16.10 CONNECTION: Some bacteria cause
disease
• All organisms are almost constantly exposed to

pathogenic bacteria.
• Most often, our body’s defenses prevent
pathogens from affecting us.

disease
• Most bacteria that cause illness do so by

producing a poison.
• Exotoxins are proteins that bacterial cells secrete
into their environment.

Figure 16.10a

disease
• Endotoxins are components of the outer

membrane of gram-negative bacteria that are
released when the cell dies or is digested by a
defensive cell.
• All endotoxins induce the same general symptoms:
fever, aches, and sometimes a dangerous drop in
blood pressure.
• Bacillus anthracis forms hardy endospores that
have been used as biological weapons.

disease
• The weapon form of C. botulinum is the exotoxin it

produces, botulinum, which is the deadliest poison
known.
• Botulinum blocks transmission of the nerve signals
that cause muscle contraction, resulting in
paralysis of the muscles required for breathing.
This effect is also responsible for a more benign
use of botulinum—relaxing facial muscles that
cause wrinkles.

Figure 16.10b

16.11 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Stomach
microbiota affect health and disease
• How do scientists determine which bacteria cause

disease?
• To test the hypothesis that a certain bacterium is
the cause of a disease, a researcher must satisfy
four conditions.

• For a human disease, the researcher must be able

to
1. find the candidate bacterium in every case of the
disease;
2. isolate the bacterium from a person who has the
disease and grow it in pure culture;
3. show that the cultured bacterium causes the
disease when transferred to a healthy subject
(usually an animal); and
4. isolate the bacterium from the experimentally
infected subject.
• Australian microbiologist Barry Marshall hypothesized

that chronic gastritis (an inflammation of the stomach
lining that can lead to ulcers) was caused by a
bacterium called Helicobacter pylori.
• Over the course of several years, Marshall satisfied the
first two requirements, but his efforts to infect animals
failed to produce results.
• At last, Marshall decided to take a radical course of
action—he would experiment on himself.
• He concocted a nasty brew of H. pylori and swallowed
it.

• Several days later, he became ill from gastritis (step 3 of

Koch’s postulates).
• His stomach lining proved to be teeming with H. pylori
(step 4). Marshall then cleared up his infection with
antibiotics.
• He continued to make progress in his research, and
other scientists followed up with further studies.
• Several years after Marshall’s big gulp, antibiotics
became a standard treatment for ulcer patients.

Figure 16.11a

• Since Marshall’s breakthrough work, scientists

have learned that our relationship with H. pylori is
ancient—at least 50,000 years old—and it’s
complicated.
• Only a particular genetic strain causes ulcers; other
strains are harmless members of our microbiota.
• Some scientists hypothesize that the absence of H.
pylori can cause problems.
• Researchers are investigating a possible
connection between this decline and the high rate
of obesity.
Figure 16.11b
Hunger satisfied
Feel hungry
Ghrelin
Ghrelin output
output declines
rises
Stomach full
Stomach empty Eat a meal

PROTISTS

16.12 Protists are an extremely diverse
assortment of eukaryotes
• Protists
• are a diverse collection of mostly unicellular
eukaryotes,
• may constitute multiple kingdoms within the
Eukarya, and
• refer to eukaryotes that are not
• plants,
• animals, or
• fungi.

• Protists obtain their nutrition in many ways. Protists

include
• autotrophs, called algae, producing their food by
photosynthesis,
• heterotrophs, informally called protozoans, eating
bacteria and other protists,
• heterotrophs, called parasites, deriving their
nutrition from a living host, which is harmed by the
interaction, and
• mixotrophs, using photosynthesis and
heterotrophy.
Figure 16.12a-0
Autotrophy Heterotrophy Mixotrophy
Caulerpa, a green alga Giardia, a parasite Euglena

Figure 16.12a-1
Autotrophy
Caulerpa, a green alga

Figure 16.12a-2
Heterotrophy
Giardia, a parasite

Figure 16.12a-3
Mixotrophy
Euglena

• Protists are found in many habitats, including

• anywhere there is moisture and
• the bodies of host organisms.

Figure 16.12b-0

Figure 16.12b-1

Figure 16.12b-2

• Recent molecular and cellular studies indicate that

nutritional modes used to categorize protists do not
reflect natural clades.
• Protist phylogeny remains unclear.

• One hypothesis, used here, proposes four

monophyletic supergroups.
1. “SAR” (includes Stramenopila, Alveolata, and
Rhizaria),
2. Excavata,
3. Unikonta, and
4. Archaeplastida.

16.13 EVOLUTION CONNECTION:
Endosymbiosis of unicellular algae is the key
to much of protist diversity
• The endosymbiont theory explains the origin of

mitochondria and chloroplasts.
• According to this theory, oxygen-using prokaryotes
established residence within other, larger
prokaryotes.
• These endosymbionts evolved into mitochondria,
giving rise to heterotrophic eukaryotes.

• Autotrophic eukaryotes later arose through primary

endosymbiosis:
1. A heterotrophic eukaryote engulfed an autotrophic
cyanobacterium.
• If the cyanobacterium continued to function within its host
cell, its photosynthesis would have provided a steady
source of food and given it a significant selective
advantage.
• Further, because the cyanobacterium had its own DNA, it
could reproduce within the host cell.
• Finally, cyanobacteria could be passed on when the host
reproduced.
2. Over time, the descendants of the original

cyanobacterium evolved into chloroplasts.
3. The chloroplast-bearing lineage of eukaryotes later
diversified into the autotrophs green algae and red
algae.

Figure 16.13-1
Endosymbiosis
of autotrophic
prokaryote
Evolved into
Cyanobacterium chloroplast
1 Nucleus
Heterotrophic
eukaryote

Figure 16.13-2
Endosymbiosis
of autotrophic
prokaryote Green alga
Chloroplast
Evolved into
2
3 Autotrophic
1 Nucleus eukaryotes
Heterotrophic
eukaryote
Chloroplast
Red alga

• In secondary endosymbiosis, an autotrophic

eukaryotic protist became endosymbiotic in a
heterotrophic eukaryotic protist.
4. Green algae and red algae became endosymbionts
following ingestion by different heterotrophic
eukaryotes. The heterotrophic host cells enclosed the
algal cells in food vacuoles.
5. But the algae—or parts of them—survived and
became cellular organelles.

Figure 16.13-3
Endosymbiosis Endosymbiosis
of autotrophic of autotrophic
prokaryote Green alga eukaryote
Chloroplast
Evolved into
2
3 Autotrophic 4 Heterotrophic 5
1 Nucleus eukaryotes eukaryotes
Heterotrophic
eukaryote
Chloroplast
Red alga

Figure 16.13-4
Endosymbiosis Endosymbiosis
of autotrophic of autotrophic
prokaryote Green alga eukaryote Remnant of
Chloroplast green alga
Evolved into
Euglena
2
3 Autotrophic 4 Heterotrophic 5
1 Nucleus eukaryotes eukaryotes
Heterotrophic
eukaryote
Chloroplast
Red alga

16.14 The “SAR” supergroup represents the
range of protist diversity
• The SAR supergroup

• is considered to be monophyletic on the basis of
genomic studies,
• forms a huge and extremely diverse group, and
• stands for three clades:
1. Stramenopila,
2. Alveolata, and
3. Rhizaria.

• Autotrophic stramenopiles include diatoms and

brown algae.
• Diatoms
• are unicellular algae that are one of the most
important photosynthetic organisms on Earth,
• have a unique glassy cell wall containing silica, and
• live in freshwater and marine environments.

Figure 16.14a

• Brown algae
• are large and complex,
• owe their characteristic brownish color to some of
the pigments in their chloroplasts,
• are all multicellular and mostly marine, and
• include kelp, which, attached to the seafloor, may
reach 60 meters in length.

Figure 16.14b

• Water molds are heterotrophic unicellular

stramenopiles that
• typically decompose dead plants and animals and
• live in freshwater habitats.

Figure 16.14c

• Alveolates (dinoflagellates)
• include unicellular autotrophs, heterotrophs, and
mixotrophs and
• are common components of marine and freshwater
plankton.
• Blooms—population explosions—of autotrophic
dinoflagellates sometimes cause warm coastal
waters to turn pinkish orange, a phenomenon
known as “red tide.”

Figure 16.14d

• Alveolata also includes ciliates, which are

• unicellular protists including heterotrophs and
mixotrophs and
• named for their use of cilia to move and to sweep
food into their mouth.
• The common freshwater protist Paramecium is
often studied in a biology lab.

Figure 16.14e
Cell mouth

• The two largest groups of Rhizaria, foraminiferans

and radiolarians, are among the organisms
referred to as amoebas.
• Amoebas move and feed by means of
pseudopodia, temporary extensions of the cell.

• Foraminiferans
• are found in the oceans and in fresh water,
• have porous shells, called tests, composed of
calcium carbonate, and
• have pseudopodia that function in feeding and
locomotion.

Figure 16.14f-0

Figure 16.14f-1

Figure 16.14f-2

• Radiolarians
• are mostly marine and
• produce a mineralized internal skeleton made of
silica.

Figure 16.14g

16.15 CONNECTION: Can algae provide a
renewable source of energy?
• Fossil fuels are the organic remains of organisms

that lived hundreds of millions of years ago.
• Diatoms are thought to be the main source of oil.
• Coal was formed from primitive plants.

16.15 CONNECTION: Can algae provide a
renewable source of energy?
• Lipid droplets in diatoms and other algae may

serve as a renewable source of energy.
• If unicellular algae could be grown on a large
scale, this oil could be harvested and processed
into biodiesel.
• Numerous technical hurdles remain before
industrial-scale production of biofuel from algae
becomes a reality.

Figure 16.15

16.16 Some excavates have modified
mitochondria
• Excavata has recently been proposed as a clade

on the basis of molecular and morphological
similarities.
• The name refers to an “excavated” feeding groove
possessed by some members of the group.
• Excavates
• have modified mitochondria that lack functional
electron transport chains and
• use anaerobic pathways such as glycolysis to
extract energy.
mitochondria
• Excavates include
• heterotrophic termite endosymbionts,

Figure 16.12b-1

Figure 16.12b-2

mitochondria
• autotrophic species,
• mixotrophs such as Euglena,

Figure 16.12a-3
Mixotrophy
Euglena

mitochondria
• the common waterborne parasite Giardia
intestinalis,

Figure 16.12a-2
Heterotrophy
Giardia, a parasite

mitochondria
intestinalis,
• the parasite Trichomonas vaginalis, which causes 5
million new infections each year of human
reproductive tracts,

Figure 16.16a
Flagella
Undulating
membrane

mitochondria
intestinalis,
• the parasite Trichomonas vaginalis, which causes 5
million new infections each year of human
reproductive tracts, and
• the parasite Trypanosoma, which causes sleeping
sickness in humans.
Figure 16.16b

16.17 Unikonts include protists that are
closely related to fungi and animals
• Unikonta is a controversial grouping joining

• amoebozoans and
• a group that includes animals and fungi, addressed
at the end of this unit on protists.

• Amoebozoans have lobe-shaped pseudopodia and

include
• many species of free-living amoebas,
• some parasitic amoebas, and
• slime molds.

Figure 16.17a

• Plasmodial slime molds

• are common where there is moist, decaying organic
matter and
• consist of a single, multinucleate mass of cytoplasm
undivided by plasma membranes, called a
plasmodium.

Figure 16.17b-0

Figure 16.17b-1

Figure 16.17b-2

• Cellular slime molds

• are common on rotting logs and decaying organic
matter and
• usually exist as solitary amoeboid cells, but when
food is scarce, amoeboid cells
• swarm together, forming a slug-like aggregate that
wanders around for a short time, and then
• form a stock supporting an asexual reproductive
structure that produces spores.

Figure 16.17c

16.18 Archaeplastids include red algae, green
algae, and land plants
• Almost all the members of the supergroup

Archaeplastida are autotrophic.
• Archaeplastids include
• red algae,
• green algae, and
• land plants.

• Red algae
• are mostly multicellular,
• contribute to the structure of coral reefs, and
• are commercially valuable.

Figure 16.18a

• Green algae may be unicellular, colonial, or

multicellular.
• Volvox is a colonial green algae.
• Chlamydomonas is a unicellular alga propelled by
two flagella.

Figure 16.18b-0
Volvox Chlamydomonas

Figure 16.18b-1
Volvox

Figure 16.18b-2
Chlamydomonas

• Ulva, or sea lettuce, is a multicellular green alga

with a complex life cycle that includes an
alternation of generations that consists of a
multicellular diploid (2n) form, the sporophyte,
that alternates with a multicellular haploid (1n)
form, the gametophyte.

Figure 16.18c-0-1
Male
gametophyte
Spores
Mitosis Gametes
Female
gametophyte

Figure 16.18c-0-2
Male
gametophyte
Spores
Mitosis Gametes
Female
gametophyte
Fusion of
gametes
Zygote
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Figure 16.18c-0-3
Male
gametophyte
Spores
Mitosis Gametes
Female
Meiosis gametophyte
Fusion of
gametes
Sporophyte
Zygote
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Figure 16.18c-1

Multicellularity evolved several times in
eukaryotes
• The origin of the eukaryotic cell led to an

evolutionary radiation of new forms of life.
• Unicellular protists are much more diverse in form
than simpler prokaryotes.

eukaryotes
• Multicellular organisms (seaweeds, plants,

animals, and most fungi) are fundamentally
different from unicellular organisms.
• All of life’s activities occur within a single cell in
unicellular organisms.
• A multicellular organism has various specialized
cells that perform different functions and are
interdependent.

eukaryotes
• Multicellular organisms have evolved from three

different lineages:
• stramenopiles (brown algae),
• unikonts (fungi and animals), and
• archaeplastids (red algae and green algae).

Figure 16.19a
Archaeplastids
Red algae
Green algae
Other green algae
Ancestral eukaryote
Charophytes
Land plants
Amoebozoans
Unikonts
Nucleariids
Fungi
Choanoflagellates
Key
All unicellular Animals
Both unicellular
and multicellular
All multicellular
16.19 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Multicellularity
evolved several times in eukaryotes
 One hypothesis states that two separate unikont

lineages led to fungi and animals, which diverged
more than 1 billion years ago.
 A combination of morphological and molecular
evidence suggests that choanoflagellates are the
closest living protist relative of animals.

Figure 16.19b-0
Nucleariids
A nucleariid, closest living protistan

relative of fungi
Fungi
1 billion Individual
years ago choanoflagellate
Choanoflagellates
Colonial
choanoflagellate
Sponge
Animals
collar cell
Sponge
Figure 16.19b-1
Nucleariids

relative of fungi
Fungi

Figure 16.19b-2
Individual
choanoflagellate
Choanoflagellates
Colonial
choanoflagellate
Sponge
Animals
collar cell
Sponge

Figure 16.19b-3

relative of fungi

You should now be able to
1. Describe the structures and functions of the diverse

features of prokaryotes and explain how these
features have contributed to their success.
2. Explain how populations of prokaryotes can adapt
rapidly to changes in their environment.
3. Describe the nutritional diversity of prokaryotes and
explain the significance of biofilms.
4. Explain how prokaryotes help clean up the
environment.
5. Compare the characteristics of the three domains of
life.
6. Describe the diverse types of Archaea living in

extreme and moderate environments.
7. Distinguish between the subgroups of the domain
Bacteria, noting the particular structure, special
features, and habitats of each group.
8. Distinguish between bacterial exotoxins and
endotoxins, noting examples of each.
9. Describe the steps of Koch’s postulates and explain
why they are used.
10. Explain how bacteria can be used as biological
weapons.
11. Describe the extremely diverse assortment of

eukaryotes.
12. Explain how primary endosymbiosis and secondary
endosymbiosis led to further cellular diversity.
13. Describe the major protist clades, noting
characteristics and examples of each.
14. Describe the life cycle of Ulva, noting each form in
the alternation of generations and how each is
produced.
15. Explain how multicellular life may have evolved in
eukaryotes.
Figure 16.UN01-0
Bacteria
Archaea

Figure 16.UN01-1
Bacteria

Figure 16.UN01-2
Archaea

Figure 16.UN02
Nutritional mode Energy source Carbon source

Photoautotroph Sunlight
CO2
Chemoautotroph Inorganic chemicals
Photoheterotroph Sunlight
Organic compounds
Chemoheterotroph Organic compounds

Figure 16.UN03-0
Exotoxin Endotoxin
Secreted by cell Component of gram-negative
plasma membrane
Staphylococcus aureus Salmonella typhimurium

Figure 16.UN03-1
Exotoxin
Secreted by cell
Staphylococcus aureus

Figure 16.UN03-2
Endotoxin
Component of gram-negative
plasma membrane

Figure 16.UN04
(a)
Red algae
algae
Green
Other green algae
Ancestral eukaryote
(b)
Land plants
(c)
Amoebozoans
Nucleariids
(d)
(e)
(f)

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Taylor Grino - Biology 101 Chapter 16 Lecture

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Chapter 16

Microbial Life: Prokaryotes and Protists

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• Microorganisms residing in and on your body

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Chapter 16: Big Ideas

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• Prokaryotic cells are smaller than eukaryotic cells.

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• Prokaryotes live in habitats

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• Our microbiota consists of the community of

• Prokaryotes in soil help to decompose dead

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• There are two very different kinds of prokaryotes,

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• Prokaryotic cells have three common cell shapes.

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Cocci Bacilli Spirochete

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• Nearly all prokaryotes have a cell wall. Cell walls

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• The cell wall of many prokaryotes is covered by a

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• Some prokaryotes have external structures that

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• Prokaryote population growth

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• The genome of a prokaryote typically

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• Some prokaryotes form specialized cells called

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• Prokaryotes exhibit much more nutritional diversity

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• Two sources of carbon are used by prokaryotes.

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• The terms that describe how prokaryotes obtain

Oscillatoria Unidentified “rock-eating” bacteria

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Unidentified “rock-eating” bacteria

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• Biofilms are highly organized colonies that attach

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• Biofilm formation begins when prokaryotes secrete

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• Prokaryotes are useful for cleaning up

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• Bioremediation is the use of organisms to remove

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