LEVEL MEASUREMENTS

UNIT V
INTRODUCTION:
In industries, the level of liquid in a tank or container is to be measured for
many reasons, some of which have been listed below.

1. If the boiler has to be fed constantly with water, the level of water in the
feed tank attached to the boiler is to be monitored continuously.

2. Hence, the study of liquid level measurement is important.

3. The discharge of liquid from the opening of a tank depends on the level of
liquid in the tank. Thus by noting the level of liquid in the tank, the
discharge can be calculated.

4. The pressure at various places in tank or container depends on the liquid

level. This pressure is to be determined in order to design liquid holding
containers or tanks.

5. In distribution tanks for supplying drinking water, the level is to be

determined to enable proper distribution of water and to know the
inventory available for future use.
LIST OF INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE LIQUID LEVEL:
There are direct and indirect methods to measure liquid level.
They are as follows:
1.DIRECT MEASUREMENT DEVICES:
a. Sight glass
b. Hook – type level indicators
c. Float type gauges (Buoyancy methods):
1. Float type liquid level gauges
2. Float shaft liquid level gauges
d. Displacer Level Detectors
2. INDIRECT MEASUREMENT DEVICES:
a. Hydrostatic pressure type (Bubbler or purge systems):
1. Hydrostatic pressure type for open tank
2. Hydrostatic pressure type for closed tank
b. Air bellows
c. Air purge system
d. Liquid purge system
LIST OF INSTRUMENTS USED TO MEASURE LIQUID LEVEL:
There are direct and indirect methods to measure liquid
level. They are as follows:
3. ELECTRICAL METHODS:
a. Rheostat Operated by a float
b. Capacitance liquid level sensor
c. Radiation level indicators (or) Gamma Ray Liquid
level sensor
4. ELECTRONIC LEVEL GAUGES:
a. Optical Level Detectors
b. Fibre – optic Level Detectors
c. Ultrasonic Level Detectors
d. Laser Level Sensors
e. Microwave Level Switches
1. DIRECT LIQUID LEVEL MEASUREMENT DEVICES:
A. SIGHT GLASS:

DESCRIPTION:
1. A tank containing the liquid whose liquid level is to be measured.
2. A transparent glass tube fitted to the outside of the tank.
3. A liquid level calibrated scale is fitted by the side of the transparent
glass tube to read liquid level directly.
OPERATION:

o The liquid contained in the tank flows to the transparent glass tube
through the connecting tube exactly to match the level of liquid in the tank.
That is the level of the liquid in the tank and the transparent glass tube will
always be the same.

o As the graduated scale is near the transparent glass tube, the level of liquid
in the transparent glass tube is directly read from the scale. Thus liquid
level is measured.
OPERATION:
o When it is desired to measure a liquid level with the liquid under
pressure or vacuum, the sight glass must be connected to the tank at
the top as well as at the bottom, otherwise the pressure difference
between the tank and the sight glass would cause false reading.

o In this case, the glass tube is enclosed in a protective housing, and two
valves are provided for isolating the gauge from the tank in case of
breakage of sight glass.
o The small valve at the bottom is provided for blowing out the gauge for
cleaning purposes.
o Figure given below shows a high pressure sight glass in which
measurement is made by reading the position of the liquid level on the
calibrated scale.

o This type of sight glass in high pressure tanks is used with appropriate
safety precautions. The glass tube must have a small inside diameter and
a thick wall.
RANGES:
❑ The standard practice is not to go in for a glass tube of more than
900 mm length. In case the height of the tank is more than 900 mm,
two or more sight glass level gauges are provided at different levels.

❑ This type of gauge is made to withstand pressures of 350 psi of stem

pressure at 2520C, or 1000 psi liquid pressures.

APPLICATIONS:
❖ This device can be used to measure levels of both clean and coloured
liquids.

ADVANTAGES:
➢ Direct reading is possible.
➢ Special designs are available for use up to 3160C and 10, 000 psi.
Glassless designs are available in numerous materials for corrosion
resistance.
DISADVANTAGES:

✓ It is read only where the tank is located, which is not always convenient.

✓ Since sight glasses are located on the outside of the tanks, the liquid in
the sight glass may freeze in cold weather even though the liquid inside
the tank does not, and thus, it may cause error in the reading.

✓ Heavy, viscous liquids or liquids containing material which fall out of

solution and clog the tube cannot be measured satisfactorily by a sight
glass.

✓ Overlapping gauges are needed for long level spans.

✓ Accuracy and readability depend on the cleanliness of glass and fluid.

✓ This device is not suitable for corrosive liquids

B. HOOK TYPE LEVEL INDICATOR:

When the level of liquid in an open tank is measured directly on a scale (the
scale may be in the liquid or outside it), it is sometimes difficult to read the
level accuracy because of parallax error. In this case a hook type of level
indicator is used.
CONSTRUCTION:
 Hook type level indicator consists of a wire of corrosion resisting alloy
(such as stainless steel) about 1/4 inch (0.063 mm) diameter, bent into U
– shape with one arm longer than the other, as shown in figure given
below.

 The shorter arm is pointed with a 600 taper, while the longer one is
attached to a slider having a Vernier scale, which moves over the main
scale and indicates the level.
WORKING:
 In hook – type of level indicator,
the hook is pushed below the
surface of liquid whose level is to
be measured and gradually raised
until the point is just about to
break through the surface. It is
then clamped, and the level is
read on the scale.

 This principle is further utilised in

the measuring point manometer
in which the measuring point
consists of a steel point fixed with
the point upwards underneath the
water surface.
WORKING:
 An eye – piece is fixed to view this
point at 450 under water so that in
addition to the point being seen,
the image of the point by total
reflection is also seen, as shown in
figure given below.

 Now, the water level is adjusted

until the tip of the image touches
the tip of the point and the level is
read on the scale. Since the point is
always under water, the trouble
due to the surface tension, when
the point is above the water, is not
experienced.
C. FLOAT GAUGES:
1. FLOAT – TAPE LIQUID LEVEL GAUGES:

DESCRIPTION:
 A tank containing the liquid whose liquid level is to be measured.
 A pulley and a pointer directly fitted to the shaft of the pulley.
 A liquid level calibrated scale and
 A float – counter balance weight – tape arrangement which runs over the
pulley as shown in figure given below. That is, one end of the tape is
attached to the float and the other end of the tape is attached to the counter
balance weight. The float is metallic or ceramic or synthetic and is in the
shape of sphere or cylinder.
OPERATION:

 The float is made to float on the liquid

as shown in figure given above.
Proportional to the level of liquid in
the tank, the float moves up or down
rotating the pulley.

 The arrangement is such that when

the pulley rotates, the shaft of the
pulley and in turn the pointer
mounted on the pulley also rotate by
the same amount. Hence the pointer
attains a suitable position on the
liquid level calibrated scale. The
reading on the scale corresponding to
the pointer becomes an indication of
the liquid level in the tank.
NOTE:

 The density of the float material should be lower than the density of the
material which is supporting it.

 The material of the float should be selected such that is does not corrode
due to the liquid whose level is being measured.
2. FLOAT – SHAFT LIQUID LEVEL GAUGE:
DESCRIPTION:
1. A tank containing the liquid whose liquid level is to be measured.
2. An arm and pointer mounted on the rotating shaft as shown in diagram.
3. A float attached to the bottom side of the arm.
4. A liquid level calibrated scale.
OPERATION:
 The float is made to float on the
liquid as shown in figure above.
 Proportional to the level of liquid in
the tank, the float moves up or
down.
 When the float changes its position,
the arm attached to the float
rotates the shaft by a certain angle
which is proportional to the liquid
level. By the same amount as the
arm, the pointer also changes its
position.
 Hence, with reference to the
relative position of the rotating
shaft, the pointer shows the
measurement of liquid level on a
liquid level calibrated scale. Thus
liquid level is measured.
APPLICATIONS:

 This gauge can be used both in closed and open tanks to measure liquid
level.

 This gauge can be used to measure levels of liquids and semi – liquids.
ADVANTAGES:
 It is possible to read the liquid levels in a tank from the ground level even
if the tank is kept below the ground level.
 Its cost is low and has reliable designs.
 It operates over a large temperature range.
 There is a choice of corrosion – resistance materials to make these.

DISADVANTAGES:
 They are normally limited to moderate pressures.

 They are tailored to tank geometry.

D. DISPLACER LEVEL DETECTORS: PRINCIPLE:
 The displacer – type level detectors works on the Archimede’s principle
which states that, “a body, wholly or partially immersed in fluid, is buoyed up by a
force which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced”.
 If the cross – sectional area of the displacer and the density of the liquid
are constant, then a unit change in level will result in a reproducible unit
change in the displacer weight. By detecting the apparent weight of the
immersed displacer, the level of the fluid is measured.

CLASSIFICATION OF DISPLACER LEVEL DETECTORS:

The various types of displacer level detectors are defined, based on the
variations in the design of the seal which are listed below:

1. Magnetically – coupled switch type

2. Torque tube type
3. Diaphragm and force bar type
4. Spring balanced type
5. Flexible disc type
6. Flexible shaft type
All of the above types operate on Archimedes’ principle, but are different as
far as their scales are concerned. All of them can detect liquid – vapour
interface, liquid – liquid interface and if level is constant, they can be used to
detect density changes.

Here we are going to discuss about Torque tube type displacer. The
construction and working of a torque – tube type displacer is given below.
CONSTRUCTION:
 A torque – tube type displacer for liquid level measurement is shown in
figure given below. It consists of a cylindrical displacer which can be
furnished in a wide length of plastic and alloy materials.
 Although any length displacer up to 3 m can be obtained, the most common
lengths used are 0.3, 0.8, 1.2, 1.5 m.
 The volume of the standard displacer is 1638 cc and consequently the
diameter is reduced as the length increases. A hollow torsion tube (or
torque tube) is used to both support the displacer, which is always heavier
than the process fluid, and to provide a frictionless pressure seal.
 This makes it possible to transfer the changes in the apparent weight of the
displacer through the wall of the pressure vessel into a suitable measuring
device.
WORKING:
 The displacer is connected to the torque
tube by the help of a torque arm which
absorbs lateral forces. Friction is minimised
by use of a knife – edge bearing support as
shown in figure above.
 A limit stop is attached with the torque arm
to prevent accidental over – stressing of the
torque tube by limiting the downward
motion of the torque arm. A torque rod is
placed in the torque tube which is attached
with a flapper – nozzle assembly.
 The angular displacement of the torque tube
and torque arm are the same at the knife –
edge end of the tube. At the flange end, the
tube does not rotate at all because it is
solidly held, but the torque rod is free to
rotate the same amount as it did at the knife
edge.
 The angular displacement, which is about 5 to
6 degrees, is linearly proportional to apparent
weight of the displacer and thus liquid level.
APPLICATIONS:

 Torque tube displacer type liquid level measuring devices can be mounted
internally or externally to the vessel or tank.

 Internal displacers are used on applications where the tank can be drained
when the level detector requires maintenance.

 For installations where the vessel or tank cannot be depressurized and

drained in order to perform maintenance on the displacer, the displacer
should be installed in an external chamber mounted outside the tank,
isolated from the process, by means of isolating valves.
ADVANTAGES:

 They have high accuracy.

 They are reliable in clean liquids.

 They can be mounted internally or externally.

 Externally mounted units can be disconnected from the process

for maintenance.

 They are adaptable to liquid interface measurement.

DISADVANTAGES:

 These instruments have limited ranges; devices exceeding 1.2 m in length

are bulky and difficult to handle.

 The cost of these devices increases appreciably for externally mounted

units as pressure ratings increase.

 External units may require heating to avoid freezing.

 External units may be in error because of temperature differences

between the vessel fluid and the level chamber fluid.

 Internal units may require stilling chambers.

2. INDIRECT MEASUREMENT DEVICES:

A. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE DEVICES (BUBBLER OR PURGE

SYSTEMS):

These devices are classified into two types namely,

1. Hydrostatic pressure devices for open tanks
2. Hydrostatic pressure devices for closed tanks.
BASIC PRINCIPLE:
 The principle used in hydrostatic pressure devices is that the pressure of the
liquid is directly proportional to the liquid level. i.e. P α h.
 In figure given above a pressure gauge is fitted at the bottom of the tank
to measure liquid level. The pressure gauge scale is calibrated to read
liquid level directly using the expression
P = ρgh, Where,
P = Pressure in N/mm2
ρ = Density in kg/mm3
g = Acceleration due to gravity in mm/sec2
h = Height in mm
 As the liquid level in the tank rises or falls, the pressure gauge reading
also raises and falls respectively. The pressure gauge reading is directly
proportional to the liquid level.
1. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE DEVICES FOR OPEN TANKS
(BUBBLER OR PURGE SYSTEM):

BASIC PRINCIPLE:

It states that, “Pressure of air, that is the transmitting fluid is equal to the
pressure of the liquid at the bottom of the tank (P) is directly proportional to the
liquid level (h)”.
DESCRIPTION:

 An open tank which contains the liquid whose level is to be measured.

 A bubbler tube which is immersed in the liquid contained in the tank as
shown in figure given below.
 A pressure gauge, air flow meter and pressure regulator connected to the
bubbler tube.
WORKING:
 Air is supplied through a pressure regulator into the bubble tank. The
opening of the bubbler tube is at the bottom of the tank.

 The flow of air through the bubbler tube is adjusted by means of an air
flow meter until air bubbles start coming out of the open end of the
bubbler tube at the bottom of the tank.

 At this instance, the pressure of air (transmitting fluid) will be equal to

the pressure of liquid at the bottom of the tank (that is, the hydrostatic
pressure of the liquid). The pressure reading obtained from the
pressure gauge is the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid which is
proportional to the liquid level “h”. That is, higher the liquid level,
higher will be the pressure read by the pressure gauge and vice –
versa.
 The scale of the pressure gauge can be calibrated to give a direct
reading of the liquid level in the tank.
NOTE:

 The commonly used transmitting fluids in hydrostatic pressure devices

are air and nitrogen. These are used for liquid level measurement of
inflammable liquids.

 In case of measuring liquid levels of slurries and hot viscous liquids,

some kind of a liquid can be used as the transmitting fluid in place of air
or nitrogen.
2.HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE DEVICES FOR CLOSED TANKS:
DESCRIPTION:
 A closed tank which contains the liquid whose level is to be measured.
 A bubbler tube which is immersed in the liquid contained in the tank as
shown in figure given below.
 An air flow meter and pressure regulator connected to the bubbler tube.
 A differential pressure gauge connected between the top portion of the
tank (to sense the pressure of air in the tank above the liquid, Pi) and the
bubbler tube (to sense the pressure of air flowing through the bubbler
tube, P) as shown in figure given below.
OPERATION:
 Air is supplied through a pressure
regulator into the bubble tank. The
opening of the bubbler tube is at the
bottom of the tank.
 The flow of air through the bubbler
tube is adjusted by means of an air
flow meter until air bubbles start
coming out of the open end of the
bubbler tube at the bottom of the
tank.
 At this instance, the differential
pressure indicated by the gauge
caused due to the pressure of air
(transmitting fluid) (P) passing
through the bubbler tube and the
pressure of air in the tank above the
liquid (Pi) will be proportional to the
level of liquid in the tank.
 That is, as the pressure gauge is
connected between the tank and the
bubbler tube, the pressure indicated
by the gauge is the differential
pressure.
 That is, differential pressure (P –Pi)
is proportional to the liquid level “h”
in the tank.
 The scale of the differential pressure
gauge can be calibrated to give a
direct reading of the liquid level in
the tank.
DISADVANTAGES:

 The instrument must be mounted at same level as the minimum level

in the tank. This is often inconvenient, as a tank may be located at
certain height above the control room.
 In this case, the level indicator in the control room would show an
error equivalent to the height of the tank from the control room.
B. AIR BELLOWS:
CONSTRUCTION:
Air bellows consists of the bellows element which is connected by the
tubing with the pressure indicator.
Air is sealed in the cavity above the bellows and inside the tubing to the
pressure indicator.
WORKING:
 When the tank is empty, the sealed air is
uncompressed and corresponds to zero on
the pressure indicator.
 As the tank is filled with liquid, the head of
liquid in the tank flexes the bellows, which
compresses the air above the bellows.
 The compression of sealed air is
transmitted to the indicator which is
calibrated in terms of the tank liquid level.
 Air bellows may be constructed for various
applications and ranges.
 Figure given below shows the industrial
application of air bellows in which a closed
–box air bellows is connected to the
process fluid via a seal, for liquid level
measurement.
 Here, liquid seals are used while
measuring corrosion or viscous liquids
level.
APPLICATIONS:
Air bellows are used for liquid level measurement where an indicator cannot be
conveniently located at the specified datum line.
C. AIR PURGE SYSTEM:
Air purge (also known as bubbler tube) system is one of the most popular
hydrostatic pressure type of liquid level measuring system which is suitable for
any liquid.
CONSTRUCTION:
 An air purge system consists of a hollow tube (known as bubbler tube)
inserted in the liquid of the tank.
 Two connections are made with the bubbler tube, one to the regulated air
supply and other to a pressure gauge, calibrated in terms of liquid level.
 A bubbler is connected in the air supply line which serves simply as a visual
check to the flow of the supply air.
 A level recorder may be connected with the pressure gauge to keep the
continuous record of liquid level as shown in figure given below.
WORKING:
 When there is no liquid in the tank or
the liquid level in the tank is below
the bottom end of the bubbler tube,
the air flows out of the bottom of the
bubbler tube and the pressure gauge
indicates zero.
 In other words, there is no back
pressure because the air escapes to
the atmosphere.
 As the liquid level in the tank
increases, the air flow is restricted by
the depth of liquid and the air
pressure acting against liquid head
appears as back pressure to the
pressure gauge.
 This back pressure causes the
pointer to move on a scale, calibrated
in terms of liquid level.
RANGES:
 The range of the device is determined by the length of the tube.
 Because air is continuously bubbling from the bottom of the tube, the
tank liquid does not enter the bubbler tube and hence, the tube is said
to be purged.
 The common purging fluid is air, but, if air reacts with the tank fluid or
is absorbed, different gases (like carbon or nitrogen) are chosen
depending on liquid properties.
ADVANTAGES:

 In this system, the pressure gauge can be placed above or below the tank
level and can be kept as far away as 500 ft (12.7 m) from the tank with the
help of piping.

 This type of device is well – suited for measuring the level of corrosive or
abrasive liquids.
D. LIQUID PURGE SYSTEM:
 When an air purge system is unsuitable, because air bubbling through
liquid may interfere with its crystallization, a liquid purge system is
used.

 The construction and working of liquid purge system is the same as an

air purge system, the only difference is that in place of air, water or light
mineral oil is used as the purge liquid.

 The nature of the purging liquid must be such that the introduction of
small quantities of it into the plant will not affect the product on process.
 It should be free flowing and not vaporize at the temperature of the pipe
line. The purging liquid may be either soluble or insoluble in the vessel
liquid.

 The rate of flow of the purging liquid is normally adjusted to about 1

gallon/hour.

 The supply liquid pressure is determined by the range of liquid level to

be monitored.
3.ELECTRICAL LIQUID LEVEL SENSORS:
BASIC PRINCIPLE:
 These are methods in which indirect measurement of liquid level is done.
In these electric methods, there are two conversions namely,
 Conversion of information about liquid level to a displacement.
 Conversion of the displacement into an electric signal using a secondary
transducer. This electric signal serves as a measure of liquid level.
Based on the types of electric signal, these electric liquid level sensors are
classified into three types, namely:
1. Rheostat operated by a float
2. Capacitive liquid level sensors
3. Gamma ray liquid level sensors.
A.RHEOSTAT OPERATED BY A FLOAT:
BASIC PRINCIPLE:
 The circuit resistance changes depending on the liquid level.
 (Liquid level in tank) is inversely proportional to (Resistance change).
 (or) (Output voltage) is proportional to (liquid level).
DESCRIPTION:
 The tank which contains the liquid whose level is to be measured.
 A float connected to a wiper/slider by means of an arm as shown in
figure given below.
 A potential divider or a rheostat (variable resistance) over which
the wiper moves. The potential divider’s or rheostat’s output
terminal is connected to a voltmeter.
WORKING:

 The float is placed on the liquid

surface in the tank.
 When the liquid level raises, the
wiper moves over the rheostat
reducing the resistance and hence
the output voltage will be higher.
 On the other hand, when the liquid
level falls, the wiper moves over
the rheostat increasing the
resistance and hence the output
voltage will be lower. The output
voltage is indicated by a voltmeter.
 The reading of the voltmeter
becomes a measure of liquid level
in the tank.
 The scale of the voltmeter can be
calibrated to give a direct
indication of liquid level in the
tank.
APPLICATIONS:
When controlling and monitoring of liquid level in the tank is to be
done from a control room situated at a distance, this method is
employed.
B. CAPACITIVE LIQUID LEVEL SENSOR:
BASIC PRINCIPLE:
The dielectric constant between two electrodes placed at equidistance
and immersed in a liquid varies directly with the liquid level. Therefore,
greater the height of liquid level, greater will be capacitance, and vice
versa.
DESCRIPTION:
 A tank containing the liquid whose
level is to be measured.
 Insulated metal electrodes which
are immersed in the liquid whose
level is to be measured.
 Output leads are drawn from the
insulated metal electrodes.
 For non conductive liquids
(Electrode and tank wall form the
plates of a parallel plate capacitor
with liquid between them acting
as di – electric).
 For conductive liquids (The
Electrodes and the liquid form the
plate of the parallel plate capacitor
and the insulation between them
acts as a di – electric)
 These devices can be used to
measure liquid levels in metallic
and non – metallic tanks.
In Metal Tank:

▪ Only the insulated metal electrodes is there in this arrangement. The gap
between the electrodes and the wall of the tank should be even.
▪ This arrangement can be used for both non – conductive and conductive
liquids level measurement.
▪ For non – conductive liquids, the electrode and the tank wall form the
plates of a parallel plate capacitor with liquid between them acting as
dielectric.
▪ For conductive liquids, the electrode and the liquid form the plates of the
parallel plate capacitor and the insulation between them acts as the
dielectric.
In non metallic tanks:
 In this case, two insulated metal electrodes are immersed in the liquid
whose level is being measured. The gap between the two insulated
electrodes should be constant. The two electrodes act as the two plates
of the parallel plate capacitor.

 Depending on the liquid level, corresponding amount of capacitance is

generated in the system. Greater the liquid level, larger is the
capacitance and vice versa.

 The capacitance output when calibrated becomes a measure of liquid

level in the tank.
ADVANTAGES:
 It is very useful in a small system.
 It is very sensitive.
 There are no moving parts exposed to fluid.
 It is suitable for continuous indication and/or control.
 Remote adjustment of span and zero is possible in this type of level
indicator.
 It is a good for use with slurries.
 Prob materials for most corrosive fluids are available.
DISADVANTAGES:
 The performance of a capacitance level indicator is severely affected
by dirt and other contaminants, because they change the dielectric
constant.
 Its sensitivity is adversely affected by changes in temperature.
 Measured fluid must have proper dielectric qualities.
 They usually require recalibration if measured material changes in
composition or moisture content.
 Prob length and mounting must suit the tank.
C. GAMMA RAY LIQUID LEVEL SENSOR (OR) RADIATION LEVEL
INDICATOR:
BASIC PRINCIPLE:
The intensity of gamma rays reaching the gamma ray sensor from a
gamma ray source is governed by the height of the liquid level in
between the receiving gamma ray sensor and the gamma ray source.
DESCRIPTION:
 A tank containing the liquid whose level is to be measured.
 A gamma ray source fitted at the bottom of the tank.
 A gamma ray sensor (Geiger muller tube) is fitted at the top of the
tank.
WORKING:
 When the level of liquid in the tank is to be measured, the gamma ray
source is made to give out gamma rays pass through the liquid in the
tank and reach the sensor.
 The intensity of gamma rays sensed by the gamma ray sensor is
proportional to the level of liquid in the tank. That is, higher the liquid
level, greater is the absorption of gamma rays by the liquid and hence
lower will be the output of the gamma ray sensor and vice versa.
 Thus the output from the gamma ray sensor becomes a measure of
liquid level in the tank when calibrated.
ADVANTAGES:
 There is no physical contact with the liquid.
 They are suitable for molten metals as well as liquids of all types
(corrosive, abrasive, highly viscous, adherent).
 They are useful at very high temperature/ pressures.
 They have good accuracy and response.
 They have no moving parts.
DISADVANTAGES:
 The reading is affected by density change of liquid.
 Radiation source holders may be heavy.
 Their cost is relatively high.
4. ELECTRONIC LIQUID LEVEL SENSORS:

a) Optical level detectors

b) Fibre – optic level detectors
c) Ultrasonic level detectors
d) Laser level sensors
e) Microwave level switches
A. OPTICAL LEVEL DETECTORS:
CONSTRUCTION:
 Optical level detectors make use of visible or infrared light beams to
detect the level of liquids or solids. Figure given below illustrates the
working of an optical level detector.
 A beam of light is aimed at the liquid or solid level and is reflected
back to a light – sensitive transistor, located in the same holder as the
light source.
 By adjusting the transistor sensitivity, the unit can be calibrated in the
range of point level detection from 6.3 mm (1/4 inch) to 300 mm
(12inches) on reflective, opaque liquid (e.g. milk) or on solids services.
WORKING:
 When light is passed through a fixed distance in a fluid, the intensity of
light received at the detector can be used to determine the
concentration of solids in the liquids.
 This same principle can also be used to measure sludge level in waste
water treatment plants.
 The operating temperature range is – 400C to – 660C.
APPLICATIONS:
 The level sensor can be used as a point sensing switch or as a
continuous sludge depth detector.
 Because of the non – contact type design, it is suitable for use on
corrosive, sticking, or coating processes.
 The reflection of laser light is used in some specialized applications
such as the measurement of the thickness of molten glass.
ADVANTAGES:
 The sensor have several light – sensitive detectors, permitting
switching to occur at more than one point.
 The laser versions of optical detectors provide high precision on
narrow span application.

DISADVANTAGES:
 The detector is adversely affected by changes in reflectivity of the
process.
B. FIBRE – OPTIC LEVEL DETECTORS:
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:
 The fibre – optic type of level detectors use the principle of light
refraction. Figure given below shows the working of fibre – optic level
detection system.
 A light beam travels through the fibre.
 When there is no liquid on the fibre, the return beam will have the
same intensity as the source beam.
 As the liquid covers the fibre, the index of refraction increases,
allowing light to escape into the liquid and reducing the strength of
the return beam.
C. ULTRASONIC LEVEL DETECTORS:
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:
 Ultrasonic level detectors
operate either by the
absorption of acoustic energy as
it travels from source to
receiver or by the attenuation
(frequency change) of a
vibrating diaphragm face,
oscillating at 35 to 40 KHz.
 It operates by generating an
ultrasonic pulse and measuring
the time it takes for the echo to
return.
 When ultrasonic transmitter is
mounted at the top of the tank,
the pulse travels in air at a
speed of 331 meter/second at
00C.
C. ULTRASONIC LEVEL DETECTORS:
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:
 The time of travel is an
indication of the depth of the
vapour space above the liquid in
the tank. If an ultrasonic
transmitter is mounted on the
bottom of the tank, the time of
travel reflects the depth of liquid
in the tank and the speed of
travel is a function of what that
liquid is.
 In case of water at 250C, an
ultrasonic pulse travels at the
speed of 1496 meters/second.
Figure illustrates the working of
an ultrasonic level detector.
 Temperature compensation is
essential in ultrasonic level
measurement because the
velocity of sound is proportional
to the square root of temperature
and, in case of air, it changes by
about 0.6 meter/second for per
0C change in temperature. The

speed of travel rises with

temperature, and it amounts to
about 0.18% per 0C.
 In order to measure the time of
travel of the echo of an ultrasonic
pulse, it is essential that some of
the sonic energy be reflected.
Liquids and solids with large and
hard particles are good reflectors.
Loose dirt have poor reflecting
characteristics as they tend to
absorb the sonic pulse.
 Since the angle of reflection is
equal to the angle of incidence, it
is important that the reflecting
surface be flat.
 If the sonic pulse is reflected
from a sloping surface, its echo
will not be directed back to the
source and the round – trip
travel time will not accurately
reflect the vertical distance.
 Irregular surfaces result in
diffuse reflection where only
small portions of the total echo
travels vertically back to the
source.
APPLICATIONS:
 Ultrasonic level measuring devices can be used for both continuous and
point measurements.
 The point measuring ultrasonic detectors are used for measurement of
gas/liquid, liquid/liquid, or gas/solid interfaces.
ADVANTAGES
☺ Ultrasonic level detectors are non – contact type measurement
techniques. They have the ability to measure level without making
physical contact with the process material.
☺ They have no moving parts.
☺ The reliability of the reading is unaffected by changes in the
composition, density, moisture content, electrical conductivity, or
dielectric constant of the process fluid.

DISADVANTAGES:
 An ultrasonic transmitter is subject to many interferences, which
affect the strength of the echo it receives. The echo can be weak due
to dispersion (which reduces sound intensity by the square of
distance) and absorption (which in dry air reduces its energy level).
 Temperature compensation is essential in ultrasonic level
measurement.
 The dirt, irregular and slope surface affect the accuracy of the
measurement.
D. LASER LEVEL SENSORS:
PRINCIPLE:
 It operates on the principle that a transmitter mounted on the top of the
vessel sends a signal via an antenna towards the measured level. The
measured level reflects a part of this beam. A receiver detects the returned
signal by means of a second or the same antenna.
 The laser level measurement uses infrared light which can be formed as
electromagnetic radiation as well as corpuscular current.
 Laser – based level measurement depends on the accurate detection of the
time it takes for a light pulse to travel to the process material surface and
back. The velocity of light is affected by the index of refraction of the vapors
through which the light pulse travels. The velocity of light in a gas or vapour
is given as,
 C = C0/N
Where, C = velocity of light
C0 = velocity of light in 00C atmosphere air
N = index of refraction of light
The actual index of refraction varies with pressure and temperature and
is expressed as,
N = (N0 – 1)(P/P0)(T/T0) + 1
Where, N = actual index of refraction under process conditions
N0 = index of refraction at 00C temperature and 1013 millibar
pressure
P = actual pressure in millibars absolute
P0 = 1013 millibars pressure
T = actual temperature in 00K
T0 = 2730K
Laser based level measurement can be defined as distance
measurement from the top of the vessel to the surface of the mounted
product.
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:

Generally, following two types of measuring techniques are used in laser

– based level measurement systems:
1. A triangular measurement technique of laser level sensor
2. A time of reflection measurement technique of laser level
sensor
A. TRIANGULAR LASER LEVEL SENSOR MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUE:
 In triangular laser level sensor, in which an angle of reflection of a
sharply focused beam is measured, which is calibrated to measure the
level.
 In this technique, a sharply focused beam is directed towards the
object (product level surface) as shown in figure given below.
 The luminous spot on the product surface is optically projected to a
charge couple device (CCD).
A. TRIANGULAR LASER LEVEL SENSOR MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUE:
 A CCD consists of memory cells which provide a map of the intensity
distribution of the reflected light. The respective electronics determine the
illuminated CCD zone and therefore the angle of the luminous spot.
 The triangular laser level measurement system has a disadvantage that the
angle change is reduced with increasing distance, which also reduces the
accuracy.
 Therefore, this principle is only suitable for short measuring distances, which
is why the laser triangulation is rarely used in technical level measurement. It
is mainly used for distance adjustments in cameras and in robotics
applications.
B.TIME OF REFLECTION MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE OF LASER
LEVEL SENSOR:
 A time of reflection measurement technique of laser level sensor, in
which the measurement of distance using the time of reflection light is
applied to level measurement as shown in figure given below.
 Two basic methods are used in this technique. In the first method, a
sharply focused laser beam is modulated on the emitting signal.
B.TIME OF REFLECTION MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE OF LASER
LEVEL SENSOR:
 The receiver demodulates the received signal and measures the phase
offset of a subscriber in MHz range. This phase offset is in linear relation
to the running period and the measured distance.
 This method is well suited in the geodesy to determine distances of
several kilometres. However, dimness as well as dust or steam above the
measured level surface can cause the system to fail.
 In the second method, the time of reflection or running period of laser
beam is measured and calibrated to read the level of liquid or solid.

 By means of high speed microprocessor electronics and efficient software

algorithm, high accuracy and resolution for level measurement can be
achieved.

 The dirt does not create any problem in this system, and hence, this ability
of the instrument makes the time of reflection system the best adapted
method for laser level measurement.
APPLICATIONS:
 It is suitable for continuous measurement of levels of both
solids and liquids.

 Some of the applications include wood pulp, green and brown

– coloured fodder in silos, crushed refuse level, liquid
aluminium, liquid polyethylene supply to extruders, brown
tobacco, and beer.
ADVANTAGES:
☺ It is a non – contact type measurement.
☺ Because light does not need a medium for propagation (unlike
ultrasonic), the laser – based level sensors are well suited for
vacuum services.
☺ As the laser beam is almost completely parallel, interfering
reflections from struts, welding joints, or material build up on the
walls of the tank is not a problem.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Unagitated transparent liquids can cause problems, because the level
transmitter might defect the tank bottom instead of the liquid
surface.
 Very shiny surface can cause errors by reflecting the light laterally,
and black surfaces can cause errors because they produces a weak
returning light signal.
 Laser level transmitter should not be used when the vapour space
absorbs the measurement signal, as in the case when steam, dust, or
fog is present in the vapour space.
E. MICROWAVE LEVEL SWITCHES:
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:
There are various microwave level switches that are used for liquid or
liquid level measurements such as
1. Reflection level switches
2. Beam – breaker level switches
1.REFLECTION LEVEL SWITCHES:
 In microwave reflection level switches, the changes in the amplitude
and/or phase of the reflected signal is used to determine material
presence.
 Figure given below shows the working of a reflector level switch.
 Reflection is proportional to the dielectric constant of the material
immediately next to the process window.
1.REFLECTION LEVEL SWITCHES:
 The microwave signal is generated by the microwave generator and
strikes the material surface in the tank through the microwave
window.
 The reflected beam is received by the microwave detector and it
compares the return signal to a reference signal in a balanced bridge
circuit to provide additional sensitivity. This helps the detector to
recognise low dielectric materials such as plastic pellets.
APPLICATIONS OF REFLECTION LEVEL SWITCHES:
 Microwave reflection level switches are useful for liquid – liquid interface
and liquid – solid interface detection on materials that have as little as 0.1
difference in dielectric constant.
 On solid applications, the reflection technique is limited to detecting
particles with diameters less than 6 mm for an X – band detector and to
2.5 mm for a K – band detector.
 It is useful on granular solids and powders such as limestone, carbon
black, and pelletized materials where it has advantages in terms of
abrasion and coating resistance, as well as having no mechanical part in
the vessel that can be broken or pulled off.
 It also useful for difficult to handle liquids that are viscous, toxic, or
hazardous because the detector is isolated from the vessel contents.
 Figure given below shows the microwave reflection characteristics of
different materials. Air, other gases, and foam have a low dielectric
constant and return little or no signal. Materials with high dielectric
constants, such as water, tend to return all of the signals.
2.BEAM BREAKER LEVEL SWITCHES:

 In microwave beam – breaker level switches, a beam is sent across the

measurement zone, as shown in figure given below.
 When air or vapour is in this zone, a strong signal is received at the
detector. When process material breaks the beam path, it reduces the
signal received at the detector due to signal reflection and due to beam
absorption in the material caused by molecular and ionic resonances.
2.BEAM BREAKER LEVEL SWITCHES:

 Beam breaker level detectors use very small antennas so that the beam’s
included angle is fairy wide, about 26 degrees for K – type band and 50
degrees for X – band.
 Thus, alignment is not critical. Although signal amplitude falls off rapidly
proportional to the square of the distance, separating distance can still be
up to 30 meters, which is considerably greater than with ultrasonic or
nuclear techniques
 APPLICATIONS OF MICROWAVE BEAM BREAKER LEVEL
SWITCHES:
 The beam breaker technique is useful for detecting large and abrasive
materials such as coal, minerals, wood chips, and vegetable pulp.
 It is also useful for detecting very light materials such as dry saw dust
and powdered materials in fluidized beds, especially with the K – band
designs, which is more easily attenuated.
APPLICATIONS OF MICROWAVE LEVEL SWITCHES:
 Microwave level detectors use electromagnetic radio waves, typically in
either the microwave X – band around 10GHz or the microwave K –
band around 24 GHz, for the level measurement.
 Microwaves do not pass through metal walls, but they do pass through
fibre glass or plastic tank walls and through windows of plastic,
ceramic, or glass that are installed in metal vessel walls.
 Side – mounted microwave level detectors are used on hard – to –
handle solid, liquid – solids interface, and liquid – liquid interface
applications.
 Top mounted microwaves level detectors are used for continuous level
measurement on liquid applications using radar technique.
ADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVE LEVEL SWITCHES:
 In microwave measurements the emissions are at very power
levels ranging from 0.1 to 5 mW/cm2. At these energy levels,
health, safety, licensing, or product contamination concerns
are minimal.
 Presence of dust, mist, and non metallic foam has negligible
effect on the accuracy of the measurement.
 By using thick windows microwave level detectors can
withstand heavy abrasion on solids service and isolates the
sensor from hazardous and toxic liquids on high pressure
service.

DISADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVE LEVEL SWITCHES:

 The beam – breaker type microwave level sensor is more
expansive as it requires two devices to install along with
separate windows on metal surfaces.
Level measurements in pressure vessels:
 When a vessel contains a liquid under pressure, the liquid level
pressure measurement becomes difficult.
 So, in closed vessels, a differential pressure instrument is used (ex:
mercury manometer).
Level measurements in pressure vessels:
 These meters measures variations in liquid level as low as 1 in. and
as high as 100 ft, even up to static pressures of 10,000 psi.
 The relationship between head and float displacement is

 By selecting the value of area A1, the desired head can be properly
related to any given float displacement.
Level measurements in pressure vessels:
 By suitable calibration shift, the instrument can be corrected for the
head h0 from the instrument to the bottom tap.
 This may be accomplished through a mechanical shift of the pen or
pointer of the manometer instrument or adding more mercury to the
manometer until the desired suppression is attained.
Level measurements in pressure vessels:
 In many cases, the vessel liquid can not be allowed to enter the
meter.
 If the liquid is corrosive, contains suspended solids, or is highly
volatile, it is to be used the sealing methods.
 The use of liquid seal is shown in figure.

 The effect of the zero head (hl+h0) can be corrected by a calibration

shift in the meter.
Level measurements in pressure vessels:
The following factors introduce the variable error in the differential
pressure measurement:
 The zero head between the meter and the lowest pressure tap.
 The head of condensed liquids in the vessel pressure tap leg.
 The head in each leg caused by the sealing methods
 The head of heavy vapor over the liquid surface in the vessel
 The variation of densities of sealing liquid and condensed liquid.
Level measurements in pressure
vessels:
 The displacement float type liquid
level gages are used not only for the
pressure vessel, but also for open
vessel.
 As shown in figure, A long float of
constant area is suspended in the
liquid.
 The weight of the liquid displaced
causes an upward force exerted by
the spring.
 The movement of float is carried by
the shaft to an indicating pointer or
can be made to operate a pneumatic
transmitting means

 Its range is about 14 to 180 in.

change in level and it may used up to
600 psi vessel pressure.
Measurement of interface
level:
 In most of the previous type
meters, it is assumed that the
surface of the liquid level was
bounded by a gas or vapor of
negligible weight density.

 However the surface level

between two immiscible liquids
of differing specific gravity or
between liquid and gas or vapor
of appreciable density may also
be measured. (see figure)
Measurement of interface
level:

 The relation between float

displacement and head of
interface level, if it is assumed
that the less dense liquid always
covers the upper tap is given by
Measurement of interface level:
 The calibration of the meter depends on difference density of two
fluids. So, if the density difference is small, measurement of interface
level is more difficult
Level of dry materials:
 The weighing methods
are most accurate when
total weight of material
is the important factor,
rather than density, level
or volume.

 The use of signaling

indicator, the device of
the Bin-Dicator company
is shown in figure.
Level of dry materials:
 This device operates from a
light, flexible, diaphragm which
mechanically positions a
switch.

 The weight of the material in

the bin act against the
diaphragm when the material
in the bin reaches a desired
level. These devices are
satisfactory for all dry bulk
materials of sufficient weight
density.

 A probe or contact type electric

indicators may also be used.
Instruments for Analysis - recording :
 In the vast majority, instrumentation is more elaborate, and in an
increasing number of processes, complete instrumentation is a necessity
without which the plant, can not operate efficiently.

 So, the instrumentation engineer is becoming an important factor in the

engineering of newly designed manufacturing processes.

 Whether it is a temperature control of a milk cooler, control of a

distillery, large steel plant, the process instrumentation is still
accomplished by experience.

Recording instrument:
 It is employed when a permanent record of the variable is desired.
 It is useful for,
(i) the process operator, as reference to observe the trend of variable as a
guide to process operation
(ii) useful in locating trouble on the job
(iii) the record may be required for reference to past performance
Instruments for Analysis - recording :
Recording instrument:
↬ The recording instruments are expensive and require more
maintenance than the indicating instrument types.
↬ Industrial instruments of the recording type employ two different
styles of recording charts:
(i) circular recording chart
(ii) strip recording chart
Instruments for Analysis - recording :
Recording instrument:
Circular recording chart:
 Used for every kind of industrial instrument
– flow, pressure, temperature and level.
 This chart is based on polar coordinates and
the time lines are segments of an arc instead
of straight lines.
 The chart is clamped at the geometric center
and rotates about the center.
 The speed of rotation is usually 8 hr, 24 hr,
or 7 days. Any speed of rotation can be
obtained by choosing a properly geared
synchronous motor.
 Mechanical (spring driven) clocks can also
be used where electricity is not available or
not desirable.
 8 in’ and 12 in’ charts are made. 8 in’ chart
used to record ambient temperature and
humidity
Instruments for Analysis - recording :
Recording instrument:
Circular recording chart:
12 in’ has the following advantages than strip type recorder:
 The entire record of one process period (4, 8, 12 hr etc) is available
at a glance
 Long chart length (about 22 in’ at 60 percent calibration
circumference) is available for one process period.
 It is easily filed for future reference.
Limitations:
 Time values toward the center are difficult to read
 The chart must be changed once every process period.
 The charts are printed under carefully controlled temperature and
humidity conditions on a high grade paper.
 The error in calibration is very small and is not corrected or
compensated.
Instruments for Analysis -
recording :
Recording instrument:
Strip recording chart:
 It is used on the potentiometer-type
instrument or on the resistance
thermometer.
 The chart is driven from the supply
roll to the reroll by a synchronous
motor. The speed of movement of
the paper is usually given in inches
per hr, 1, 2 and 4 in’ per hr being
very common.
 Speed up to 20 in’ per hr are
available.
 The strip recording chart used with
the recording-pyrometer and
resistance thermometer type
instrument has rectangular
coordinates and width of approx,.
10 in’.
 Strip recording chart for
galvanometer type instruments are
not so common in recent years.
Instruments for Analysis - recording :
Recording instrument:
Strip recording chart has the following advantages than circular chart:
 It does not required frequent changing.
 Long process periods (24 hr or longer) are easily recorded
 Readability is same at all values of scale span.

Limitations:
 A limited length of chart is visible (usually about 8 inches)
 It is difficult file and not easily used for reference.
 Humidity variations cause the strip chart to change width, for this
reasons, oblong slots on the left side chart is provided.
 The error is small as like circular chart. But better to avoid wide
changes in humidity.
 Recording instruments may also include a linear indicating scale as
shown in figure.
Instruments for Analysis - recording :
Recording instrument:
 Multiple point recorders are used to record several variables on one
chart. It is possible when those variables not vary greatly with time
and when they are separated (not close together) in value.
 Circular chart recorders may record up to 3 or 4 variables and these
almost any of measured quantity.
 So, it usually have four separate measuring means and four separate
recording pens. These essentially of 4 instrument in one and each
variable recorded by independent means.
 Also it is possible to use one recording pen to record up to six
variables on one circular chart by employing six separate measuring
means.
Indicating and signaling instrument:
 It is used when only the present value of the variable is required and
past values has no meanings.
 Indicating scales are 3 types:
eccentric scale, concentric scale, linear scale
Indicating and signaling instrument:
 Eccentric scale: commonly used such as
pressure thermometers, flowmeters and
pressure gages.
 Scale length is about 8 in’ but may be
much smaller.

 In concentric scale, length is about 25 in’

. However, in simple dial type pressure
gages and thermometers, the scale length
is as small as 3 in’.

 The linear scale as seen in strip type

recorder, commonly used in
potentiometer – resistance –
thermometer type instrument.

 Use of the various indicating instrument

is generally restricted, because free
choice is not possible.

 For readability, the concentric scale

offers the greatest scale length in the
smallest space.
Indicating and signaling instrument:
 Signaling instrument: It is necessary to indicate that the variable is
within certain limits.
 It is accomplished by electric contacts or switches suitably operated
from a measuring means such as a thermometer pressure spring,
liquid level float, or thermocouple pyrometer.
 Signal lights or horns are used for visual or audible signal.
(amber – colored signal→ yellow)
Indicating and signaling instrument:
Signaling instrument:
 Signaling system should be positive, that is, system should require an
operator to look for a specific combination of signals before performing an
operation.
 An example of poor signaling is to permit a process operation to proceed only
when no signal is evident.
 This does not force a operation of checking a signal into the process operation
cycle, and it will likely to overlooked.
 Such procedure is unsafe, because no signal may simply mean that the power
is off.
Indicating and signaling instrument:
Signaling instrument:
The common signaling system,
⇝ hi-low system – useful for indicating when a variable has passed a given point
(this is sometime used without the high or low)
⇝ the hi-low neutral system (widely used to indicate that a process operation may
proceed only when the amber light is on)
⇝ the 5-position system, which provide more information on the value of the
variable. For ex. some process operation may proceed when the amber light only
is on, and some operations may proceed when the amber and either red or green
lights are on.
Transmission of instrument readings:
 It is necessary to measure a variable at one point and indicates its value at
another point located at considerable distance from the first.

 For mechanical instruments, transmission of readings must be considered at

distances greater than 50 ft, because the additional measuring lag and the
possibility of ambient temperature error increase rapidly with temperature.

 Pneumatic transmission is generally operated on transmitted pressures of

about 0 to 20 psig.
 The receiver is simply a pressure gage of 0 t0 20 psig calibration .
 Actual calibration can then be made in terms of temperature, flow, liquid level,
or whatever variable is desired.
Transmission of instrument readings:
 Electric transmission: No limitation w.r.t distance between measuring element
and instrument.

 But there is additional resistance of long lines, which reduces the

sensitiveness of measurement.

 In temperature measurement long connecting lines may make accurate

ambient temperature compensation difficult.

 With automatic controllers, an additional element is introduced into the

problem of transmission by the consideration of the automatic control circuit.

 Due to transmission line in automatic control circuit, the measuring and

controlling lag can become great. It is the consequence of pneumatic
transmission.
Transmission of instrument
readings:
 Figure shows the two methods
of arranging transmission
when automatic control is
involved.
 On the left, the transmitter is
located at pipe line and
transmits the flow readings to
receiver located some distance
away.
 The receiver is actually a
controller, and send back a
control signal to the final
control element (FCE). Hence,
transmission-line lag included
twice in the control circuit
(transmitter to receiver and
receiver to FCE)
Transmission of instrument
readings:
 On the right, instrument at
pipeline is a combined
controller and transmitter. It
becomes the better quality of
control.
Transmission of instrument
readings:
Control center:
 Instrumentation equipment are
generally grouped at one location
near the processing unit .
 This group of instrumentation
equipment may be termed a
control center. Since it is controls
or aids an operator in controlling
the process operation.
 The fundamental purpose of
instrumentation is control of
production quality or quantity.
 The control center must have,
 Clean dry atmosphere, relatively
constant temperature and
humidity, no vibration, adequate
light, unfailing source of electric
power for electrical
measurements, unfailing source of
clean dry air of constant pressure
(when pneumatic equipment is
used)
Transmission of instrument readings:
Control center:
 The control center should be located near the processing operation for close cooperation
between process and control center.
 Because of physical size of some plants, it is necessary to consider two types of plant and
instrumentation layout: the central layout and the unit layout.
Instrumentation diagram:
Purpose:
 To provide information quickly for use in process analysis, production
control, specification of equipment, and preparation of equipment
requisitions.

 Instrumentation diagram is constructed on the basis of process flow

diagram.
 It is intended to show the schematic layout of the process and plant layout
together with the instrumentation equipment used with the process.

 It does not show, the scale (size) of the equipment or technical

specification of equipment.
Instrumentation diagram:
 With regard to instrumentation equipment the diagram should show all
major items; in some cases minor items may be omitted.
 It should indicate,
⇏ the variable being measured
⇏ whether indication, recording or other service is required.
⇏ whether control or alarm functions are required
⇏ The auxiliary features of the instrument or controller
⇏ The type of connecting lines
⇏ The approximate location of the point of measurement and point o f control.
⇏ Which instrument is to be included in the control center and which is to be
remained at processing unit.
Instrumentation diagram:
The symbols for instrumentation diagram show in figure.
Instrumentation diagram:
The specifications for instrumentation diagram show in table.
Instrumentation diagram:
Instrumentation diagram for rayon slashing operation.
Instrumentation diagram:
Instrumentation diagram for more complicated process.
Material is to desulphurizer heater, then to catalyst chamber, steam is super
heated in the heater and passed to the catalyst chamber
Instrumentation diagram:
Process analysis:
A procedure for analyzing a process and applying instrumentation can be
given as follows:
 Divide the plant function into the smallest operation elements or
operation units.
 List all variables (temperature, pressure, flow rate, composition etc.) that
may affect each process operation element.
 Add to this list ambient temperature, ambient humidity, barometric
pressure, sun and wind condition.
 Divide this list of variables into four groups:
 Variables to be controlled automatically
 Variables to be measured continuously
 Variables to be measured periodically
 Variables neither measured nor controlled
Instrumentation diagram:
Process analysis:
A procedure for analyzing a process and applying instrumentation can be
given as follows:
 For each variable of the automatic control group, select:
 A method of measurement that will provide data most indicative of the desired process
performance.
 A location for the controller – at the control center or on the unit.
 A style of controller – nonindicating, indicating, or recording.
 A mode of control that will provide the desired performance in view of the process
dynamics.
 For each variable of the continuous measurement group decide,
 What method of measurement will provide data most indicative of the desired process
performance
 Whether signaling, indication, or recording is most desirable
 Whether the signal device, indicator, or recorder is to be located at the control center or
at the unit.
Instrumentation diagram:
Process analysis:
A procedure for analyzing a process and applying instrumentation can be
given as follows:
 For each variable of the periodic measurement group, decide on a method
of performing the measurement and the frequency with which the
measurement must be made.
 Construct an instrumentation diagram.
SERVICING OF LEVEL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:

▪ The primary reasons for servicing level instruments (or any process
instruments) are to reduce plant down time and to make sure that field
instruments give accurate readings. The servicing of different type of
level instruments is discussed below.
SERVICING OF SIGHT GLASSES:
To service a sight glass in the field, following steps should be
followed:
1. First close the top and bottom valves.
2. Open the drain valve.
3. Remove the bolts holding the glass tube and remove it from the
seals.
4. Clean the glass tube with soap and water using a brush.
5. Assemble the parts one by one in correct order.
SERVICING OF FLOAT – OPERATED INSTRUMENTS:

 The most common maintenance problems with the float – operated

level instruments are; the guide cable wound around a pulley
sometimes breaks or becomes corroded, the tape attached to the float
can break or become twisted, and corrosion can cause holes in the
float.

 The moving parts may be filled with oil to lubricants and protect the
internal parts from corrosion.
SERVICING OF HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS:
 The first maintenance check in this case should be a check of the
transmitter’s output. The transmitter output should be a correct
pressure signal corresponding to the level of liquid in the tank.
 If the signal is correct, the system is free from leaks and the
transmitter is calibrated correctly. If the signal is not correct, the
transmitter should be checked and calibrated properly.
 In case of an air purge system, the plugged bubble tubes are the
primary maintenance problem. The bubble tube should be replaced in
exactly the same position or as close to the bottom of the tank as
possible for accurate level measurement.
The End