Energy Conversion and Management 158 (2018) 70–80

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Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

An assessment on the effects of 1-pentanol and 1-butanol as additives with T

Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel
⁎
K. Nanthagopala, B. Ashoka, , B. Saravananb, Deepam Patela, B. Sudarshana,
R. Aaditya Ramasamya
a
School of Mechanical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore 632014, India
b
Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Hyderabad, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The aim of the present study is to investigate the effect of higher alcohols with Calophyllum Inophyllum bio-
Diesel emissions diesel on the diesel engine characteristics under various engine loads. Two higher alcohols have been identified
Calophyllum Inophyllum for the present investigation namely 1-pentanol and 1-butanol and the six fuel samples have been prepared with
1-Pentanol Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel at 40%, 50% and 60% concentrations by volume. All the experiments are
1-Butanol
carried out in a single cylinder, four stroke and constant speed diesel engine and the experimental results are
Higher alcohol
Binary blend
compared with conventional diesel and pure biodiesel fuels. The study revealed that the diesel engine operation
with higher alcohol-biodiesel blends has shown lower brake thermal efficiency and higher brake specific fuel
consumption. The reduction rate is higher with a higher concentration of alcohol in the fuel blends. On the other
hand, the cooling effect of higher alcohol in the blend reduces the NOx emission due to their higher latent heat of
vaporization. Moreover, the CO, HC and smoke emissions are decreased for all higher alcohol-biodiesel blends.
The combustion characteristics are followed similar pattern for all tested fuels and peak pressure is compara-
tively lower for higher concentration of alcohol in the fuel blend. Finally, it is revealed that 1-pentanol and 1-
butanol can be successfully used as partial substitute to diesel or biodiesel fuel.

1. Introduction operating conditions in diesel engines [5]. Among many available

Diesel engines have become the most common power source in both
rural and urban territories, largely owing to their good conversion ef-
ficiency, high brake power, high torque, low fuel utilization and low
maintenance cost [1]. The rapid depletion of fossil fuel reserves around
the globe and the environmental hazards posed by diesel engines have
driven researchers to focus on more affordable, safe and cleaner sources
of energy that can effectively substitute diesel without compromising
on the performance of the diesel engine [2]. A variety of alternative
fuels are available for diesel engines, out of which, biofuels have re-
ceived more attention in the recent years. The usage of these biofuels
can address the energy crisis and significantly ease the detrimental ef-
fects of fossil fuel combustion on the environment and reduce the de-
pendency on non-renewable sources of energy [3,4]. In recent times
many research activities have been carried out for the partial or com-
plete replacement of the diesel fuel with biodiesel under various
feedstocks for biodiesel production, non-edible vegetable oils are
gaining greater attention around the world due to their eco-friendly
nature, survival potency under any adverse climate conditions and
more importantly its economic prices [6].
Calophyllum Inophyllum vegetable oil is one of the easily and
widely available feedstock, which can be derived from the seed of an
ornamental tree and that is spread in the countries like India, Japan,
China and Africa. Transesterification is the best and feasible technique
for the biodiesel production from raw vegetable oil using various cat-
alysts in order to reduce the high free fatty acid (FFA) content. The
resultant product of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil is commonly known as
Calophyllum Inophyllum methyl ester and it’s properties easily meets
the United States (ASTM D 6751) and European Union (EN14214)
biodiesel standards [7]. As per the International Energy Agency report,
the production cost of biodiesel is around US$0.5 per litre, which is
1.5–3 times higher than conventional fossil fuels in many of the

Abbreviations: CI, Compression ignition; CIME, Calophyllum Inophyllum methyl ester; CO, Carbon monoxide; BTE, Brake thermal efficiency; BSFC, Brake specific fuel consumption;
BSEC, Brake specific energy consumption; CB100, 100% Biodiesel (Calophyllum Inophyllum); 1P40-CB60, 40% 1-pentanol + 60% Biodiesel; 1P50-CB50, 50% 1-pentanol + 50%
Biodiesel; 1P60-CB40, 60% 1-pentanol + 40% Biodiesel; 1B40-CB60, 40% 1-butanol + 60% Biodiesel; 1B50-CB50, 50% 1-butanol + 50% Biodiesel; 1B60-CB40, 60% 1-butanol + 40%
Biodiesel; HC, Hydrocarbons; NOx, Oxides of nitrogen; ppm, Parts per million
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ashokmts@gmail.com (B. Ashok).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.12.048
Received 1 September 2017; Received in revised form 11 December 2017; Accepted 14 December 2017
Available online 09 January 2018
0196-8904/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K. Nanthagopal et al.
developed countries. Therefore, more systemic efforts and develop-
ments should be take place so that the biodiesel availability will be
economically viable and feasible around the globe [8]. Atabani et al.
[9] have critically reviewed the main advantages and drawbacks of
Calophyllum Inophyllum oil compared to other feedstock and they
pointed out that Calophyllum Inophyllum has higher yield content,
more heating value and better lubricity property. The study was also
revealed that Calophyllum Inophyllum methyl ester can be used as fuel
either in neat or solution mode in diesel engines due to the effective
reductions of exhaust emissions except for NOx emissions. Moreover,
the effective use of any biodiesel for diesel engine applications is lim-
ited by their cold flow property and high viscosity. Some important
properties of biodiesel such as cloud point and pour point, cold filter
plugging point would cause the biodiesel solidification, which resulted
in blockage of fuel in filters, fuel starvation and operability issues.
Moreover, the high viscosity of biodiesel leads to poor atomization and
deposit formations [10]. The above mentioned problems along with
simultaneous reductions of NOx and soot emissions for biodiesel fuels
are achieved by many techniques like low-temperature combustion
(LTC), exhaust gas recirculation and retardation of injection timing etc.
More importantly, the addition of fuel having low cetane number and
higher volatility with biodiesel is the viable alternative technique to
achieve this low-temperature combustion without any major mod-
ifications [11]. In this regard, alcohols are considered as a viable can-
didate due to their faster evaporation and inherent oxygen content.
Furthermore, alcohol does not provide any kind of penalties in a diesel
engine, because of their higher latent heat of vaporization and low
energy content [12].
Among all the available alcohols, higher alcohols (high carbon
content) are getting much more attention in recent times compared to
lower alcohols like methanol and ethanol because of their higher cetane
number, heating value, the lower oxygen-carrying capacity and their
easily blending ability with diesel or biodiesel [13]. Furthermore,
higher alcohols have better combustion characteristics, lower eva-
porative emissions and they do not deposit any carbon in the engine,
resulting in a better life of the engine components. It is to be noted that
the concentration of carbon increase in the alcohol leads to increase the
cetane number, calorific value and reduce the oxygen content. This
higher cetane number of higher alcohols decreases the ignition delay
period and reduce the heat loss through the combustion chamber [14].
Fewer research works have been carried out in recent times with var-
ious types of higher alcohols in diesel engine under different propor-
tions. The present study aims at utilizing the 1-butanol and 1-pentanol
as a partial substitute to biodiesel in the existing compression ignition
(CI) engine. Interestingly, 1-butanol is a four straight carbon chain
structure higher alcohol and it offers many benefits as automotive fuel
additive such as higher calorific value, cetane number, flash point,
better lubricating properties and lower volatility, less corrosive nature
as compared to other lower alcohols [15]. Moreover, the low polarity
and hygroscopic nature produce better solvency and stability while
adding with diesel or biodiesel fuels. In addition, the low hygroscopic
nature of 1-butanol provides less corrosiveness in the fuel delivery
system than that of other higher alcohols [16,17]. All these positive
factors lead to focus on butanol and its isomers as automotive fuel in the
recent years. Further, 1-pentanol has longer carbon chains, which
consumes lower energy during production process when compared to
other higher alcohols. It also offers many significant benefits like low
hygroscopic nature and better blend stability and higher calorific value
[18,19]. It was also revealed that the blending of 1-pentanol with diesel
or biodiesel has resulted in improved fuel atomization spray char-
acteristics [20]. Recently, Campos et al. [13] pointed out that these
kinds of higher alcohols can be produced through a fermentation pro-
cess from many renewable sources in an effective manner.
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Energy Conversion and Management 158 (2018) 70–80
2. Background of the research work
Very few studies have been reported in recent times around the
globe with 1-butanol and 1-pentanol as a substitute for diesel under
various concentrations. Tuccar et al. [21] evaluated the effect of the
addition of butanol to microalgae biodiesel and diesel as a ternary fuel
blend by varying the concentration of diesel and butanol. These blends
were also found to have properties that allowed them to use in con-
ventional CI engines without major modifications. They concluded that
there was a slight decrease in the power and torque output of the engine
when butanol is added to the ternary blends due to reduced energy
content. However, the emissions such as CO, NOx emission and smoke
opacity values are reduced with the addition of butanol. Yilmaz et al.
[22] examined the effect of butanol addition with biodiesel as a binary
blend in the ratio of 5%, 10% and 20% on volume basis. It has been
reported that the addition of butanol with biodiesel has produced
higher BSFC compared to pure diesel and biodiesel due to the reduction
in heating value of the blend. The addition of butanol with biodiesel
also reduces the NOx emissions and the reduction rate is increased with
a higher fraction of butanol in the blend.
Altun et al. [23] carried out an experimental campaign for 10% and
20% (by volume) butanol addition with 20% biodiesel (20% biodiesel
and 80% diesel in volume) as fuel and the results have been compared
with conventional diesel and biodiesel. It was noted that the BSFC and
BTE were found to be slightly higher for the addition of butanol with
20% biodiesel-diesel blend. In addition, significant reductions have
been observed in CO, HC emissions except for NOx emission. Yoshimoto
et al. [24] studied the impact of the 1-butanol addition of 40% by vo-
lume with palm oil biodiesel. The drawback of the high pour point of
the palm biodiesel has been overcome by the addition of 1-butanol. The
addition of 1-butanol to the palm oil alters the thermal efficiency and
smoke emissions little bit as compared to the base fuel. However, the
HC and CO emissions are higher for the 1-butanol blends at lower en-
gine loading condition. In another study, Nabi et al. [25] have in-
vestigated the effect of n-butanol with diesel fuel on six cylinders tur-
bocharged common rail diesel engine characteristics under 13-mode
European stationary cycle. It was pointed out that the NOx emission
was significantly higher along with 70% reductions of PM emission
during butanol addition with palm biodiesel.
In a similar way, few researchers have examined the influence of 1-
pentanol with diesel or biodiesel as a substitute for diesel engine ap-
plications. Li et al. [26] evaluated the effect of neat pentanol as regular
fuel in a single cylinder diesel engine and the results showed that there
was a reduction in fuel consumption with improved brake thermal ef-
ficiency compared to neat diesel fuel. This is due to the superior knock
resistance behavior with stable combustion during premixed combus-
tion phase. The fuel spray behavior of n-pentanol was evaluated by
Dhanasekaran et al. [27].The presence of excess oxygen content in n-
pentanol has shown better combustion efficiency and thereby lower
smoke and carbon monoxide emissions. In a study, n-pentanol was used
as an additive for ternary blend preparation and has shown improved
performance [28]. Ileri [29] studied the additional impact of cetane
improver with the ternary blend of diesel (70%), biodiesel (20%) and 1-
pentanol (10%) by volume. The addition of cetane improver provides a
positive effect on the fuel properties and improves the brake thermal
efficiency significantly. The NOx emissions are decreased due to the
reduction of ignition delay period for cetane enhancer addition. Yilmaz
et al. [30] studied the impact of 1-pentanol as a fuel additive with waste
cooking oil methyl ester on a volume basis and the results are compared
with diesel blends. The concentration of 1-pentanol is varied by 10%
and 20% with biodiesel and the properties of the blends are in test
standard limits. Higher oxygen content in the 1-pentanol leads to in-
crease the brake thermal efficiency of the biodiesel blends and the re-
sults are reversed for the addition with diesel due to the reduction in
calorific value. Yilmaz and Atmanli [31] extended the similar work
with waste cooking oil, biodiesel, 1-pentanol, and diesel as a ternary
K. Nanthagopal et al.
blend. The ternary blends exhibit higher brake thermal efficiency with a
penalty of CO, HC and NOx emissions as compared to the binary blend.
In another study, the cold flow properties of biodiesel were improved
by blending a certain percentage of higher alcohol [32].
3. Objective of the present work
From the intense review of available literature, it is found that
Calophyllum Inophyllum is widely available in many parts of the world
and therefore it can be exploited as an alternative energy source for CI
engine applications. However, the effective usage of the Calophyllum
Inophyllum methyl ester (CIME) is obstructed by its deteriorated per-
formance and emission characteristics. Among the various higher al-
cohols available, 1-butanol and 1-pentanol are found to have superior
properties as compared to the lower alcohols. Furthermore, in the open
scientific literature, there is no research work has been reported in the
blend of 1-butanol and 1-pentanol with Calophyllum Inophyllum bio-
diesel. In this background, the objective of the present research work is
to study the effects of adding higher alcohols (1-butanol and 1-pen-
tanol) to Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel on performance and
emission characteristics. A systematic methodology has been developed
to use the binary blends of CIME with 1-butanol and 1-pentanol as fuel
in CI engine. Therefore, in the present study, six different binary blends
have been prepared by varying higher alcohol contents (40%, 50%, and
60%) with CIME(40%, 50% and 60%) on a volume basis. The prepared
fuel samples are tested in a direct injection single cylinder, constant
speed CI engine under similar operating conditions. Finally, all the
results of binary blends are compared with conventional diesel and
biodiesel (CIME) fuels.
4. Materials and methods
In the present work, the transesterification process is followed in the
preparation of Calophyllum Inophyllum methyl ester (CIME) and the
obtained sample is added to the higher alcohols in volume basis. The
following sections discuss the biodiesel preparation process.
4.1. Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel preparation
The vegetable oil obtained from the seed of Calophyllum
Inophyllum has higher free fatty acid (FFA) content in the range of 23%
by weight and its viscosity is higher as well. The conversion of crude
vegetable oil into biodiesel is achieved through three stage transester-
ification process. In the transesterification process, the crude oil is
added with methyl alcohol in the presence of alkali and an acid catalyst
to convert the vegetable oil into a methyl ester. During this process, the
methyl alcohol reacts with FFA of crude oil to form as methyl ester and
glycerol as a by-product. At the end of this process, the purification of
the samples has to be carried in order to remove the trapped methanol
and results in the best yield from vegetable oil. By the transesterifica-
tion process, the higher FFA content and viscosity of the crude oil is
reduced to form as biodiesel. The composition of the obtained
Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel is listed in Table 1.
Table 1
Fatty acid content of CIME.
Fatty acid Structure Molecular formula % Weight Nature of Fatty acid
Linoleic acid 18:2 C18H32O2 25 Poly unsaturated
Oleic acid 18:1 C18H34O2 50 Mono unsaturated
Palmitic acid 16:0 C16H32O2 16 Saturated
Stearic acid 18:0 C18H36O2 9 Saturated
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Energy Conversion and Management 158 (2018) 70–80
4.2. Higher alcohol and Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel blends
For this study, 1-pentanol and 1-butanol of the technical grade (99%
purity) were procured from M/s.Harish Lab, Chennai as the long chain
alcohols. In this study, the blended fuels were prepared by the changing
the volume proportion of 40%, 50% and 60% of each alcohol and CIME
in the proportion of 60%, 50%, and 40% respectively. The prepared
samples are identified as 1P40-CB60, 1P50-CB50, 1P60-CB40 for the 1-
pentanol and 1B40-CB60, 1B50-CB50, 1B60-CB40 for the 1-butanol and
CIME blends. Table 2 shows the properties of the 1-pentanol, 1-butanol,
diesel and CIME fuels used for the present investigation. The blends are
prepared by splash blending technique which is the most frequently
used and least expensive technique. All fuel blends were miscible and
stable during the application of the tests. No phase separation was
observed from the prepared samples, even after 48 h. However, in order
to ensure the fuel homogeneity, all the samples were stirred well with
the help of mixer before the experimental engine testing. During ex-
perimentation, all the blends were stirred well to ensure homogeneity
just before fuelling.
The properties of the prepared fuel samples are measured as per
ASTM standards and the same has been listed in Table 3. It can be
observed that the calorific values of CIME-alcohol blends are decreased
with increase in the concentration of alcohol in the blends. This is due
to increase in oxygen content of the fuel blends. The reduction in cetane
number is observed for a higher fraction of alcohol in the blends due to
the lower cetane number of 1-butanol and 1-pentanol when compared
to CIME fuel. Interestingly, the flash point of fuel blends is increased
with increase in biodiesel fraction in the blend because of more stable
molecular structures of CIME at higher temperatures. Moreover, the
properties of higher alcohol-CIME blends are comparable to the diesel
fuel which clearly indicated that all these blends in blends can be di-
rectly used in CI engines without any major modifications.
5. Experimental engine test setup
In this work, the fuel tests are carried out on a single cylinder,
naturally aspirated, air cooled type, four-stroke, direct injection diesel
engine (TAF1, Kirloskar model). The maximum torque is 28.2 Nm at
1500 rpm and the maximum engine power is 4.4 kW. The technical
specifications of the engine are tabulated in Table 4. The schematic
diagram of the experimental setup is depicted in Fig. 1 and the test
system consisted of an engine, a dynamometer, fuel supply system, data
acquisition unit, emission analyzer and a smoke opacimeter. The test
engine is coupled to an eddy-current dynamometer (Dynalec make)
with an electronic exciter for measuring and adjusting the load. For the
fuel consumption measurement, the time required for 100cc of fuel
consumption is recorded with the aid of burette setup and stopwatch.
The exhaust gas and engine oil temperature were measured by a K-type
thermocouple which is connected to the digital display unit. For col-
lecting the exhaust gas samples a measuring probe is connected to the
exhaust tailpipe of the engine. The collected gaseous emissions in-
cluding HC, NOx, CO2 and CO emissions were measured using the AVL
make (AVL digas 444 model) emission analyzer and smoke opacity was
measured using AVL 437C model opacimeter. Before the experiments,
the gas analyzers were calibrated using standard gases. The pressure
inside the combustion chamber is measured using a Kistler make min-
iature pressure transducer that is connected to a computer-based data
acquisition system (DAQ). The crank angle and the position of top dead
center (TDC) were measured using a crank angle encoder. The acquired
output data is fed into the combustion analysis software (AVL IN-
DMICRA) with the aid of DAQ system. The combustion analyzer pro-
vides the results of the combustion characteristics such as in-cylinder
gas pressure variation, peak pressure, heat release rate and ignition
delay period of the tested fuel samples. Measurements of all these
parameters are carried out for 100 cycles and an average of these values
is taken in order to reduce the influence of cycle-by-cycle variation. The
K. Nanthagopal et al. Energy Conversion and Management 158 (2018) 70–80

Table 2
Fuel properties of diesel, Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel, 1-butanol and 1-pentanol [31,33].

Properties Diesel Biodiesel (CIME) 1-Butanol 1-Pentanol ASTM Standard

Calorific value (MJ/kg) 42.49 38.00 33.10 35.06 D420

Cetane number 52.00 53.00 17.00 20.00 D976
Flash point(°C) 75.00 142.00 35.00 49.00 D93
Density (kg/m3) @15 °C 835.00 868.60 810.00 814.80 D4052
Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s) @40 °C 2.72 4.70 2.63 2.89 D445
Molecular weight (kg/kmol) 195.00 – 74.12 88.15 –
Oxygen content (% by wt)a 0 11.35 21.6 18.15 D3176

a
Data have been taken from [32].

Table 3
Properties of the tested fuel samples.

Properties 1B40-CB60 1B50-CB50 1B60-CB40 1P40-CB60 1P50-CB50 1P60-CB40

Calorific value (MJ/kg) 36.09 35.25 35.12 36.94 36.51 36.13

Cetane number 38.80 35.50 31.20 39.86 36.98 33.12
Flash point(°C) 99.20 88.50 77.80 104.8 95.5 86.2
Density (kg/m3) @15 °C 845.16 839.3 833.44 847.08 841.70 836.32
Kinematic viscosity (Cst) @40 °C 3.87 3.67 3.46 3.98 3.78 3.61

Table 4 Table 5
Specification of the test engine. Accuracy of various measuring instruments.

Parameter Specification S. No Instruments Range Accuracy Uncertainty %

Make Kirloskar TAF1 1. Engine speed 0–10,000 rpm ± 10 rpm 0.2

Type of engine Single cylinder, four stroke, vertical, air cooled, constant 2. Exhaust gas 0–900 °C ± 1 °C 0.2
speed, direct injection, compression ignition temperature
Ignition Compression ignition 3. Digital stop watch ± 0.1 s 0.3
Type of injection Direct injection 4. Pressure pickup 0–110 bar ± 0.1 bar 0.1
Type of cooling Air cooled 5. Crank angle encoder 0–360° ± 1° 0.2
Rated Power 4.4 kW 6. U-tube manometer 0–500 mm ± 1 mm 1.0
Rated Torque 28.2 Nm 7. Burette system 0–100cc ± 0.1cc 1.0
Rated Speed 1500 rpm 8. Exhaust emission CO: 0–10% vol ± 0.001% 0.2
Bore 87.5 mm analyser
Stroke 110 mm HC: 0–10,000 ppm ± 10 ppm 0.3
Compression ratio 17.5:1 CO2: 0–20% vol ± 0.02% 0.2
Clearance volume 36.87 cm3 NOx: 0–5000 ppm ± 10 ppm 0.4
Swept volume 661 cm3 9. AVL 437C smoke 0–100% ± 1% 1.0
Injection timing 23° bTDC meter
Injection pressure 220 bar

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the engine

testing setup.

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K. Nanthagopal et al. Energy Conversion and Management 158 (2018) 70–80

accuracy of the equipment used in the present research is presented in

Table 5. All the tests are conducted under steady-state conditions in
order to ensure the reliability of the recordings. Before the readings are
acquired, the engine is run for about 15 min to allow it to stabilize. In
order to ensure the correctness in the engine testing each test is re-
peated three times and the averaged results are mentioned in the fol-
lowing section.
In the present research work, each test is carried out three times for
various fuel samples and the average values have been taken for cal-
culation purpose. Uncertainty analysis is carried out in order to eval-
uate the accuracy of engine performance measurements. Estimation of
uncertainty of some important parameters from known measured va-
lues is evaluated based on the square root method and the same has
been presented in Table 5. The diesel engine exhaust emissions of CO,
HC and NOx are estimated into brake specific emissions in g/kWh as
per the standard emission testing procedure. The sample calculation of
CO emission from ppm into g/kWh is given below. The brake specific
emission concentrations of CO is obtained from their measured emis-
sion concentrations in ppm as
Fig. 2. Variation of BTE as a function of engine load.
CO (ppm) ∗1e−6∗ṁ exh (g/h) ∗MWCO (g/mol)
CO (g/kWh) =
BP (kW) ∗MWexh (g/mol) (1) CIME has decreased the brake thermal efficiency and the reduction in
where BTE is proportional to the concentration of higher alcohol in the blend.
It is to be noted from Table 3, the calorific value of higher alcohol-CIME
CO – Carbon monoxide in ppm blends are decreased with increase in the concentration of higher al-
ṁ exh – Mass flow rate of exhaust gas (sum of mass flow rate of air and cohol in the fuel blends. This is because of reduction in calorific value of
fuel) alcohol-biodiesel blends, which increases the fuel consumption for
MWCO – Molecular weight of carbon monoxide achieving the equal power output. Furthermore, the reduction in BTE is
MWexh – Molecular weight of exhaust gas more severe for all 1-butanol-biodiesel blends compared to 1-pentanol
BP – Engine brake power blends and this is due to the reduction in calorific value. In an earlier
study, it was stated that the calorific value of fuel would be lower, if the
6. Results and discussion fuel has more oxygen content. In the present study also, 1-butanol has
higher oxygen content than that of 1-pentanol which leads to reduce the
The engine is tested for different loading conditions by varying from calorific value and the same is reflected in brake thermal efficiency
0 to 100% of full load capacity. The engine is operated with the dif- also. This is noted from Table. 3 that lower calorific value of 1-pentanol
ferent blends of biodiesel and higher alcohol blends. The obtained re- is 5.59% higher than calorific value of 1-butanol fuel.
sults are compared with base diesel and biodiesel for its performance,
emission and combustion characteristics features. 6.1.2. Brake specific fuel consumption
Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is a measure of the fue-
6.1. Engine performance parameters l efficiency of any engine that burns fuel and produces the rotational
power output. BSFC of the various higher alcohols and Calophyllum
Engine performance parameters such as brake thermal efficiency Inophyllum methyl ester (CIME) blends as a function of engine load
(BTE), brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) and brake specific en- (ranging from 0% to 100%) is shown in Fig. 3. From the figure, it is
ergy consumption (BSEC) for all the tested fuels with respect to engine observed that the lowest fuel consumption is attained by the diesel due
load at a constant engine speed are evaluated and discussed in the to higher calorific value as compared to the CIME and other fuel blends.
following section.

6.1.1. Brake thermal efficiency

The Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) is defined as engine brake
power output as a function of the thermal input from the supplied fuel.
It can be used to estimate how well an engine can convert the heat from
a fuel to mechanical energy.
Brake thermal efficiency = Power output/Heat supplied from the fuel
(2)

Heat supplied from the fuel = Mass of fuel consumption

× Lower calorific value of fuel (3)
Fig. 2 depicts the effect of various higher alcohols and Calophyllum
Inophyllum methyl ester (CIME) blends on brake thermal efficiency as a
function of engine loads. It is to be noted that there is an increase in BTE
with an increase in engine loads. It can be seen that diesel fuel has the
higher BTE than that of pure biodiesel and alcohol-biodiesel blends and
this is due to the higher calorific value of the diesel fuel. The maximum
brake thermal efficiency for diesel and CIME fuels are 31.56% and
Fig. 3. Variation of BSFC as a function of engine load.
27.60% respectively. Interestingly, the addition of higher alcohols with

74
K. Nanthagopal et al. Energy Conversion and Management 158 (2018) 70–80

The BSFC is 0.268 kg/kWh for diesel, 0.343 kg/kWh for pure CIME,
0.375 kg/kWh for 1P40-CB60, 0.409 kg/kWh for 1P50-CB50, 0.434 kg/
kWh for 1P60-CB40, 0.447 kg/kWh for 1B40-CB60, 0.488 kg/kWh for
1B50-CB50 and 0.498 kg/kWh for 1B60-CB40 blends at 100% engine
load. BSFC for 1-pentanol blends is lesser than its counterpart of 1-
butanol due to the higher energy content of 1-pentanol-CIME blends.
The higher oxygen content of the 1-butanol decreases the calorific value
which causes to consume more amount fuel for same power output
[32]. However, there is an increase in BSFC value with the increase of
the alcohol concentration in the blend. This is because the relatively
high amount of fuel is required to produce the same amount of power
owing to the lower energy content of the higher alcohol blends. A si-
milar result of higher fuel consumption is achieved by increasing the
concentration of higher alcohols (butanol and pentanol) with biodiesel
[24,30].

6.1.3. Brake specific energy consumption

Brake specific energy consumption (BSEC) is the parameter used to
find out the amount of energy consumed to produce unit power. BSEC is
Fig. 5. Variation of HC emissions as a function of engine load.
more logical parameter than BSFC for the comparison to compare fuels
having different calorific values and densities. It is usually calculated by
multiplying BSFC with a lower calorific value of any fuels. these parameters are discussed in the following section.

Brake specific energy consumption = Brake specific fuel consumption
× Lower calorific value of fuel
Fig. 4 depicts the variation of BSEC on the effects of various higher
alcohols and Calophyllum Inophyllum methyl ester (CIME) blends.
From the figure, it can be observed that diesel has lower BSEC than that
of pure CIME throughout the entire engine loads owing to the higher
density and lesser calorific value of the biodiesel. Notably, the addition
of higher alcohol with CIME has increased the BSEC at all engine loads.
As it was pointed out earlier that the higher oxygen content in the al-
cohol reduces the heating value, which increases the fuel consumption
for developing equal power output. The addition of higher alcohol with
CIME increases the BSEC from 6.25% to 32.36% at full engine load.
BSEC for 1-pentanol blends is lower than 1-butanol blends across the
entire engine power output conditions and this might be due to 5.59%
higher calorific value of 1-pentanol which reduces the fuel consumption
for the same power output.
6.2. Exhaust emission parameters
The emission parameters such as hydrocarbon (HC), carbon mon-
oxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and smoke
opacity are obtained for the higher alcohol and CIME blend and all
6.2.1. Hydrocarbon emissions
(4) The formation of HC emissions is the result of burning the hetero-
geneous air/fuel mixture and also related to various factors prevailing
conditions during combustion process such as cetane number of the
fuel, the heat of vaporization, air-fuel ratio and oxygen content. The
variation of HC emissions as a function of engine load for all the tested
fuels is depicted in Fig. 5. At the lower engine loading conditions, the
formation of HC emissions is higher than full load condition and this is
due to the over the lean limit of the air-fuel mixture and the lower
cylinder wall temperature affects the flame speed which leads to in-
complete combustion. From the figure, it is observed that the HC
emission for diesel fuel is higher than CIME across the entire engine
loads. This condition is attributed due to the presence of higher oxygen
content and cetane number of CIME, which enhances the better com-
bustion output. This is noted that the HC emission is decreased with
increase in brake power. The increase in brake power with an increase
in engine load is the primary reason for this behavior. However, higher
alcohol (1-butanol and 1-pentanol) and CIME blends have higher HC
emissions as compared to pure CIME for all engine loading conditions.
This may be attributed due to the improper mixing of air and fuel that
leads to incomplete combustion. Moreover, higher alcohol/CIME blends
have lower cetane number when compared with CIME fuel, which al-
lows more time for the fuel to vaporize, leading to a broader lean outer
flame zone. Also, it deteriorates the autoignition properties of the
blends and promotes quenching effect in the leaner mixture zone of the
cylinder [35]. Among the higher alcohols, 1-butanol-CIME blends have
relatively higher HC emission as compared to 1-pentanol-CIME blends.
This is mainly due to the dominative effect of cetane number over the
latent heat of evaporation. It was revealed that, the latent heat of
evaporation of alcohol would be decreased with increase in carbon
chain. The combined effect leads to the enlargement of lean flame-out
zones and reduces the HC emissions for 1-pentanol blends. But the
formation of HC emissions is increased for the higher fraction of the
both higher alcohols (1-butanol and 1-pentanol) in the blend. The ex-
cess oxygen content in the higher fractions of alcohol blends leads to
form the over leaning in the mixture. Earlier experiments conducted by
Wei et al. [33] also showed similar results for the higher percentage of
alcohol in the fuel blend leads to form higher HC emissions at a given
engine load.

6.2.2. Carbon monoxide emission

Carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are formed due to the lack of
Fig. 4. Variation of BSEC as a function of engine load.
oxygen or rich air-fuel ratio inside the combustion chamber. The low in-

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K. Nanthagopal et al. Energy Conversion and Management 158 (2018) 70–80

Fig. 7. Variation of CO2 emissions as a function of engine load.

Fig. 6. Variation of CO emissions as a function of engine load.

which decrease the formation of CO2 emission [37].

cylinder temperature causes a cooling effect that also favors the for-
mation of CO emission. The variations of CO emissions of the tested fuel
blends are depicted in Fig. 6. It can be observed that the CO emissions 6.2.4. Oxides of nitrogen emissions
are aligned with the general decreasing trend in the lower load condi- Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) emissions are referred to as nitrogen oxide
tions due to the over lean air-fuel mixtures and the drastic increasing (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) in the diesel engine exhaust.
trend at higher loads because of the fuel rich zones. At high engine Formation of NOx emission is the function of oxygen concentration, the
loading condition, the CO emission for CIME and diesel is reported to be temperature inside the cylinder and residence time of the gases at that
8.40 g/kWh and 9.49 g/kWh respectively. As noted from the figure that temperature. Variations of NOx emissions across various engine loading
the CIME fuel shows comparatively lower percentage of CO emission as conditions for diesel, CIME, 1-pentanol and 1-butanol blends are shown
diesel for all engine loading conditions. This may be attributed to the in Fig. 8. It is observed from the Fig. 8 that the NOx emission is de-
presence of higher oxygen content in CIME that oxidize the carbon creased with increase in engine load for all the tested fuels and this is
monoxide into carbon dioxide. Moreover, the addition of higher alco- due to rise in combustion temperature inside the cylinder [34]. The
hols with CIME (1-butanol and 1-pentanol) increases the CO emission diesel engine operation with CIME fuel has shown higher NOx emission
for all engine loads. This is because of the higher latent heat of va- than that of diesel fuel at all engine loads, which is due to the excess
porization and poor ignition properties of the higher alcohol lead to oxygen content of the CIME biodiesel. The higher oxygen content in the
biodiesel causes to increase the flame temperature in oxygen-rich zones
incomplete combustion and thereby higher CO emissions are formed.
Atmanli [32] has reported that the formation of CO emissions is in- in the combustion chamber which leads to increase NOx emissions
[38]. Noteworthy, the addition of higher alcohol with CIME biodiesel
creased with the addition of higher alcohol to the biodiesel which is due
to the lower cetane number and evaporation characteristics. It can also has resulted in lower NOx emission compared to neat biodiesel. This is
attributed to the high latent heat of vaporization of higher alcohol in
be seen that increasing of higher alcohol content in the fuel also in-
creases the CO emission. This is mainly because of the high latent heat the blend, which exhibits the cooling effect during the combustion
process. The higher latent heat of vaporization of higher alcohol in the
of evaporation for the higher alcohol-CIME blends that decreases the in-
cylinder temperature and causes a cooling effect that promotes the blend plays a dominant role during combustion process that resulted in
low combustion temperature and thereby low NOx formations for all
formation of CO [18].
alcohol-CIME blends. At full engine load, the reduction in NOx emission
6.2.3. Carbon dioxide emissions
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an end-combustion product of each fuel
that contains carbon molecule in its atomic structure. Carbon dioxide
emission in a diesel engine is related to the complete combustion of the
fuel and it occurs due to high post-combustion temperature. The ex-
istence of enough oxygen for a complete burning also increases the
amount of carbon dioxide emission. With the adequate availability of
oxygen, hydroxyl radical OH (one of the principal oxidizing agents)
converts CO into CO2 [36]. The variation of CO2 emissions of the tested
fuel blends is depicted in Fig. 7. It can be observed that the brake
specific CO2 emission is decreased with increasing the engine load and
this can be attributed to the increase in engine power output.
Throughout engine operation, CO2 emission of CIME is higher than
diesel and this is due to the oxygen molecules in the CIME fuel reacts
with unburnt carbon atoms during the combustion and increases CO2
formation. Meanwhile, CO2 emission for higher alcohol-CIME blends is
lower than that of pure biodiesel and there is no specific trend in CO2
emission for higher alcohol concentration in tested blends. The reduc-
tion in CO2 emission for higher alcohol blends is might be due to the
Fig. 8. Variation of NOx emissions as a function of engine load.
higher oxygen content and hydrogen molecules in fuel structures,

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K. Nanthagopal et al. Energy Conversion and Management 158 (2018) 70–80

Fig. 10. Variation of in-cylinder pressure as a function of crank angle.

Fig. 9. Variations of smoke opacity as a function of engine load.

release rate and ignition delay period for all tested fuels are estimated
reduces from 10 to 23% for all alcohol blends compared to neat CIME in order to study the suitability of the fuel for diesel engine applica-
fuel. These results are in agreement with those from Atmanli, [32] tions. The obtained combustion characteristics are compared with dif-
showing the addition of higher alcohols (namely propanol, n-butanol, ferent alcohol-biodiesel blends and discussed in following sections.
and 1-pentanol) to the diesel-biodiesel blends reduces the NOx emis-
sions. It is also inferred that increase in alcohol concentration in the
6.3.1. In-cylinder pressure
blends increases the NOx emissions. This is due to the dominant effect
The in-cylinder pressure generated inside the combustion chamber
of oxygen content and ignition delay caused by lower cetane number
of a CI engine is governed by the amount fuel taking part in un-
which consequently results in more fuel to be injected into the com-
controlled combustion. It is an important parameter to study the com-
bustion chamber causing more premixed combustion and hence ele-
bustion process in a CI engine. The variation of in-cylinder pressure at
vating the in-cylinder temperature [33].
full load condition is represented in Fig. 10 for all tested fuel samples.
The pressure variations follow the similar trend for all the fuel samples
6.2.5. Smoke emission and diesel fuel combustion resulted in a higher pressure inside cylinder
Smoke emission in diesel engines is formed due to the over fuelling when compared to biodiesel and other samples. This can be attributed
that causes excess fuel to flow into the combustion chamber and formed to the higher calorific value of diesel fuel as compared to other samples.
as rich fuel zone. The excess fuel is not efficiently burnt and hence exits Furthermore, the addition of higher alcohol with CIME fuel has resulted
the engine partially combusted, thereby causing smoke emission. Other in lower cylinder pressure at all engine loads. This is due to the com-
factors affecting smoke emission include air-fuel mixing, lack of bined effect of reduction in calorific value and higher latent heat of
oxygen, fuel injection timing and fuel atomization. Fig. 9 portrays the vaporization of higher alcohol in the blend that reduces the heat gen-
variations of smoke opacity as a function of engine load for all test fuels. eration inside the combustion chamber. It is also noted that the increase
It can be clearly seen that the smoke emission for all test fuels increases in alcohol concentration in the blend reduces the cylinder pressure. The
with increase in engine loading conditions. At high engine load more peak in-cylinder peak pressure values for all tested fuel samples at full
fuel is injected to attain the power output and more prominent fuel rich
zones are existed in the combustion chamber [33]. At full engine load,
the smoke opacity of diesel, CB100, 1P40-CB60, 1P50-CB50, 1P60-
CB40, 1B40-CB60, 1B50-CB50 and 1B60-CB40 fuels is 70.1%, 45.6%,
67.2%, 62%, 56.4%, 54.6, 49.5% and 45.6% respectively. The smoke
emission of pure CIME fuel is lower than diesel for all loading condi-
tions and is 35% lower at full engine load. The higher oxygen content in
CIME favors complete combustion of the fuel and thereby lower soot
formation. Moreover, higher alcohol (1-pentanol and 1-butanol) blends
have comparatively higher smoke formation than pure CIME fuel. This
is due to the increase in latent heat of evaporation which decreases the
in-cylinder temperature, thereby promotes the smoke formation [34].
The findings can also be attributed to the poor auto ignition and eva-
poration properties of the higher alcohol blends that increase the
number of flame quenching zones inside the combustion chamber. It is
also clearly discernible that smoke opacity for 1-pentanol-CIME blends
is higher than that of 1-butanol-CIME blends for all concentrations
across entire engine loads. Kumar et al. [39] have reported a similar
trend in which the smoke opacity is found to be decreased for lower
carbon chain in the branch of the higher alcohols.

6.3. Combustion parameters

Fig. 11. Variation of peak cylinder as a function of engine load.

Combustion parameters such as in-cylinder gas pressure, heat

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K. Nanthagopal et al. Energy Conversion and Management 158 (2018) 70–80

Fig. 13. Variation of cumulative heat release rate as a function of crank angle.

Fig. 12. Variation of heat release rate as a function of crank angle.

engine load are depicted in Fig. 11. Peak pressure for diesel, CB100,
1P40-CB60, 1P50-CB50, 1P60-CB40, 1B40-CB60, 1B50-CB50, 1B60-
CB40 is 79.27 bar, 77 bar, 76 bar, 75.7 bar, 75.3 bar, 74.37 bar, 72 bar
and 70.5 bar respectively. In general, peak pressure values attained by
butanol blends are lower than that of corresponding pentanol blends
because of the difference in the calorific value of the samples. More
reduction in peak in-cylinder gas pressure for 1-butanol-CIME fuels is
because of the higher latent heat of vaporization of higher alcohol that
provides more cooling effect inside the combustion chamber.

6.3.2. Heat release and cumulative heat release rate

Heat release rate (HRR) is a crucial combustion parameter obtained
by applying the first law of thermodynamics on the in-cylinder gas
pressure variable. It is an important combustion parameter which de-
fines the phases of combustion as premixed combustion, rapid com-
bustion, controlled combustion and period after burning. The com-
bustion characteristics of the engine can be studied through the heat
release rate variations plotted against the crank angle as shown in the
Fig. 12 for all the tested fuel samples. Owing to its higher calorific
value, combustion of diesel fuel results in higher heat release rate as
compared to the CIME. It can be observed that initiation of combustion Fig. 14. Variations of ignition delay as a function of engine load.

is earlier for CIME biodiesel when compared to other samples and this
can be owing to its higher cetane number. However, the higher alcohol-
biodiesel blends have a lower cetane number and hence a longer igni-
tion delay exists which leads to delay the starting of combustion. Ad-
dition of higher alcohol resulted in the lower heat release rate as
compared to pure biodiesel and this is due to the reduction calorific
value of the blends. Among the higher alcohol, HRR values for pen-
tanol-biodiesel blends are found to be higher than 1-butanol-biodiesel
blends. It is because of the higher calorific value of pentanol blends that
they release more heat during the combustion process. Also, the longer
ignition delay period of 1-pentanol blend results in more fuel con-
sumption in the premixed combustion phase, thereby increasing the
rate of pressure rise and heat release. Dhanasekaran et al., [27] wit-
nessed the higher heat release rate for the addition of pentanol with
waste cooking oil biodiesel as ternary blend in CI engine. Cumulative
heat release rate (CHRR) for all tested fuels depicted in Fig. 13. The
maximum CHRR is obtained for the diesel fuel as compared to all tested
fuels. The increase in CHRR for higher alcohol added to the biodiesel is
evident due to the higher calorific value and improved combustion
efficiency.
6.3.3. Ignition delay
The ignition delay in a diesel engine is defined as the time interval
between the start of injection and the start of combustion. The ignition
delay period in terms of crank angle is estimated as the difference be-
tween the crank angle at the start of fuel injection (23°CA bTDC) and
crank angle at which 5% of heat release rate during the combustion
process [3].Variation of ignition delay period for all tested fuels is
plotted in Fig. 14 across the various engine loads. The general trend
recorded for all testing fuels is a decrease in ignition delay period as the
loading value is increased. At lower engine load due to a lower in-cy-
linder wall temperature and residual gas temperature, the delay in ig-
nition period is higher when compared to higher engine loading values.
The ignition delay period of diesel, CB100, 1P40-CB60, 1P50-CB50,
1P60-CB40, 1B40-CB60, 1B50-CB50 and 1B60-CB40 are found to be
19.1 deg, 15.4 deg, 21.35 deg, 22.15 deg, 22.95 deg, 21.4 deg,
22.15 deg and 22.55 deg respectively at full engine load condition. Due
to the higher cetane number of CIME fuel, a shorter ignition delay
period is existed in combustion as compared to diesel. However, on the
addition of higher alcohol to CIME leads to increases the ignition delay
period. The cetane number of the blends is decreased due to the addi-
tion of higher alcohols with CIME and thus delaying the start of the
combustion process. It is to be noted that there is an increase in ignition
delay with an increase in the alcohol concentration in the blend. This is
due to the decrease in cetane number of the sample blends with an

78
K. Nanthagopal et al.
increase in higher alcohol concentration. Also, the ignition delay of 1-
pentanol blends is higher than the corresponding 1-butanol blends
owing to the higher latent heat of vaporization, thereby delaying the
start of the combustion process. Similar results have been accounted for
the ternary blends of waste sunflower biodiesel, n-pentanol blends and
diesel in a CI engine operation for different blend ratios by Babu and
Anand [28].
7. Conclusion
In this work, the effect of performance, emission and combustion
characteristics of different concentration higher alcohol (1-pentanol
and 1-butanol) blends with Calophyllum Inophyllum methyl ester
(CIME) were investigated and compared with baseline diesel fuel and
neat biodiesel in a diesel engine. From the experimental results the
following conclusions are drawn:
1. Addition of higher alcohol to the CIME fuel resulted in a reduction
of brake thermal efficiency as compared to that of pure CIME and
the reduction rate is proportional to the fraction of alcohol in the
blend.
2. The higher alcohol fraction in the blends leads to increase the BSFC
and BSEC due to the reduction in calorific value of the blend.
3. HC emissions of the higher alcohol/CIME blends are found to be
higher when compared to pure CIME fuel and are in the order of
(highest to lowest): Diesel > 1B60-CB40 > 1B50-CB50 > 1B40-
CB60 > 1P60-CB40 > 1P50-CB50 > 1P40-CB60 > CB100. This
is due to the high latent heat of vaporization of alcohol which
promotes the quenching effect in the leaner mixture zone of the
cylinder.
4. The diesel engine operation with CIME-alcohol blends decreases the
NOx emission compared to pure CIME fuel and significant reduction
is observed at all fractions of higher alcohol in the blends.
5. Smoke opacity and CO emission for CIME fuel found to be com-
paratively lower than diesel fuel due to the oxygenated nature of
biodiesel. However, higher alcohol/CIME blends have higher smoke
and CO emissions when compared to pure CIME fuel. This might be
due to the poor auto ignition and evaporation properties of the
higher alcohol in the blends that increase the number of flame
quenching zones inside the combustion chamber and thereby in-
complete combustion.
6. The ignition delay period gets longer for higher alcohol blends as
compared to diesel and pure CIME. The self-ignition characteristics
are affected due to the lower cetane number of the fuel blend which
results in the increase of ignition delay period.
7. Significant reduction in peak cylinder gas pressure and heat release
rate are observed with increase in the fraction of higher alcohol in
the blend.
Hence, the addition of higher alcohol (1-butanol and 1-pentanol)
with Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel resulted in poor performance
and emissions as compared to the pure biodiesel except for NOx
emissions. Therefore, it can be concluded that the higher alcohol can be
blended with lower concentration inorder to improve the performance
and emission characteristics.
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