Digital Signal

Processing
By
Ihab Ali, Ph.D., SMIEEE
 Outline
• Introduction
• Discrete Time Signals and Systems
• The Z-Transform
• Frequency Analysis of Discrete Time
Signals
• Discrete and Fast Fourier Transforms
• Implementation of Discrete Time Systems
• Design of Digital Filters
 Text Book
• Digital Signal Processing Principles,
Algorithms and Applications, 4th edition,
by John G. Proakis
 CHAPTER
Introduction
What is a signal?
A signal is formally defined as a function of one or more variables that
conveys information on the nature of a physical phenomenon.
What is a system?
A system is formally defined as an entity that manipulates one or more
signals to accomplish a function, thereby yielding new signals.

Figure 1.1
Block diagram representation of a system.

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Introduction

Analog Versus Digital Signal Processing

Digital approach has two advantages over analog approach:

1. Flexibility
2. Repeatability

Classification of Signals

1. Continuous-time and discrete-time signals

Parentheses (‧)
Continuous-time signals: x(t)
Discrete-time signals: x  n  = x(nTs ), n = 0,  1,  2, ....... where t = nTs

Brackets [‧]
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CHAPTER
Introduction

Figure 1.2
(a) Continuous-time signal x(t). (b) Representation of x(t) as a
discrete-time signal x[n].

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Introduction
◆ Example of periodic and nonperiodic signals: Fig. 1-3.

Figure 1.3
(a) Square wave with amplitude A = 1 and period T = 0.2s.
(b) Rectangular pulse of amplitude A and duration T1.
◆ Periodic and nonperiodic signals (Discrete-Time Case)
x  n  = x  n + N  for integer n
Fundamental frequency of x[n]: N = positive integer
2
=
N
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 CHAPTER
Introduction

◆ Example of periodic and nonperiodic signals:

Figure 1.4
Discrete-time square
wave alternative
between –1 and +1.

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 CHAPTER
Introduction
Figure 1.5
Aperiodic discrete-time signal
consisting of three nonzero samples.

4. Deterministic signals and random signals

A deterministic signal is a signal about which there is no uncertainty with
respect to its value at any time.

A random signal is a signal about which there is uncertainty before it occurs.

5. Energy signals and power signals

Instantaneous power:
v 2 (t ) If R = 1  and x(t) represents a current or a voltage,
p(t ) = then the instantaneous power is
R
p (t ) = x 2 (t )
p (t ) = Ri 2 (t )

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 CHAPTER
Introduction
The total energy of the continuous-time signal x(t) is ◆ Discrete-time case:
T
 Total energy of x[n]:
E = lim  x (t )dt =  x 2 (t )dt
2
−T
2
T → − 
E= 
2
x 2 [ n]
Time-averaged, or average, power is n =−
T
1 Average power of x[n]:
P = lim −2T x 2 (t )dt 𝑁
T → T 1
2
𝑃 = lim ෍ 𝑥 2 [𝑛]
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 𝑛=−𝑁
For periodic signal, the time-averaged power is
T N −1
1 1
P = −2T x 2 (t )dt
T 2
P=
N
 x [n]
n =0
2

★ Energy signal:
If and only if the total energy of the signal satisfies the condition
0 E 
★ Power signal:
If and only if the average power of the signal satisfies the condition
0 P
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 CHAPTER
Introduction

• Energy signal has zero time-average power

(why?)
• Power signal has infinite energy (why?)

➢ Energy signal and power signal are mutually

exclusive

• Periodic signal and random signal are usually

viewed as power signal
• Nonperiodic and deterministic are usually
viewed as energy signal
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 CHAPTER
Introduction
Basic Operations on Signals
★ Operations Performed on dependent Variables c = scaling factor
Amplitude scaling: x(t) y (t ) = cx(t )
Discrete-time case: x[n] y[n] = cx[n] Performed by amplifier
Addition:
y (t ) = x1 (t ) + x2 (t )
Discrete-time case: y[n] = x1[n] + x2 [n]
Multiplication:
Ex. AM modulation
y (t ) = x1 (t ) x2 (t )
y[n] = x1[n]x2 [n]
Differentiation: Figure 1.6
d d Inductor with current
y (t ) = x(t ) Inductor: v(t ) = L i (t ) i(t), inducing voltage
dt dt
v(t) across its
Integration: terminals.
t
y (t ) =  x( )d
−
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 CHAPTER
Introduction
1 t
C −
Capacitor: v(t ) = i( )d Figure 1.7
Capacitor with
★ Operations Performed on voltage v(t) across
independent Variables its terminals,
Time scaling: inducing current i(t).
a >1  compressed
y (t ) = x(at )
0 < a < 1  expanded
Fig. 1-8.

Figure 1.8
Time-scaling operation; (a) continuous-time signal x(t), (b) version of x(t) compressed
by a factor of 2, and (c) version of x(t) expanded by a factor of 2.

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Introduction
Discrete-time case: y[n] = x[kn], k  0 k = integer Some values lost!

Figure 1.9
Effect of time scaling on a discrete-time signal: (a) discrete-time signal x[n] and (b)
version of x[n] compressed by a factor of 2, with some values of the original x[n] lost
as a result of the compression.
Reflection:
y (t ) = x(−t ) The signal y(t) represents a reflected version of x(t) about t = 0.

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Introduction

Figure 1.10
Operation of reflection: (a) continuous-time signal x(t) and (b) reflected version of x(t)
about the origin.
x(t ) = 0 for t  −T1 and t  T2
t0 > 0  shift toward right
y (t ) = 0 for t  T1 and t  −T2 t0 < 0  shift toward left
Time shifting: y(t ) = x(t − t0 )

Figure 1.11
Time-shifting operation: (a) continuous-
time signal in the form of a rectangular
pulse of amplitude 1.0 and duration 1.0,
symmetric about the origin; and (b) time-
shifted version of x(t) by 2 time shifts.
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Introduction
Discrete-time case: y[n] = x[n − m] where m is a positive or negative integer
★ Precedence Rule for Time Shifting and Time Scaling
1. Combination of time shifting and time scaling:
y (t ) = x(at − b)
y (0) = x(−b)
b
y ( ) = x(0)
a
2. Operation order:
1st step: time shifting v(t ) = x(t − b)
2nd step: time scaling y (t ) = v( at ) = x( at − b)

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 CHAPTER
Introduction

Figure 1.12
The proper order in which the operations of time scaling and time shifting
should be applied in the case of the continuous-time signal of Example 1.5.
(a) Rectangular pulse x(t) of amplitude 1.0 and duration 2.0, symmetric
about the origin. (b) Intermediate pulse v(t), representing a time-shifted
version of x(t). (c) Desired signal y(t), resulting from the compression of v(t)
by a factor of 2.

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Introduction

Figure 1.13
The incorrect way of applying the precedence rule. (a) Signal x(t).
(b) Time-scaled signal v(t) = x(2t). (c) Signal y(t) obtained by shifting
v(t) = x(2t) by 3 time units, which yields y(t) = x(2(t + 3)).

A discrete-time signal is defined by

 1, n = 1,2

x[n] =  −1, n = −1, −2
 0, n = 0 and | n | 2

Find y[n] = x[2n + 3].
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Introduction

Figure 1.14
The proper order of applying the operations of time scaling and time shifting for the
case of a discrete-time signal. (a) Discrete-time signal x[n], antisymmetric about the
origin. (b) Intermediate signal v(n) obtained by shifting x[n] to the left by 3 samples.
(c) Discrete-time signal y[n] resulting from the compression of v[n] by a factor of 2,
as a result of which two samples of the original x[n], located at n = –2, +2, are lost.
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