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Uma Chakravarti
Uma Chakravarti
Uma Chakravarti
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women, the patriarchal family had establish- (i e, oy rci.-iv-infe women powerless, by woman, a Sudra, a dog, and a crow are the
ed a certain degree of control over women. appropriating ai! the sources of their embodiments of untruth, sin, and darkness
Their position in the pastoral economy, with strength) it appears that kingship or the state [XIV.1J.31]. The view that women's innate
the household playing an important part in was already associated with the control of nature was lascivious and evil was so per-
production, ensured the recognition of their women and was an instrument through vasive that it features even in Buddhist
presence in society especially in the perfor- which their subjugation was achieved. literature.2 A Jataka story states that
mance of rituals. But the custom of Niyoga women are a sex composed of wickedness
which was the privilege of affinal male II and guile; womankind holds truth for
kinsmen indicates that control over female falsehood and falsehood for truth. They are
sexuality- was firmly established. Niyoga The shift to an agricultural economy and unstable as the sand, and as cruel as the
combines the utilisation of the reproductive the second urbanisation (800BC- 600BC) snakV [Jataka 1:55]. Says -another Jataka
potential of women but under rules laid was marked by the emergence of caste and story, "Wrathful are women, slanderous in-
down by men to further cultural norms class divisions. The brahmana was a force grates, the sowers Of dissensions and strife"
which privilege them. And it is noteworthy to reckon with and patrilineal succession was Their passions are insatiable as they act ac-
that while there is no special value attached fairly well established within the larger con- cording to their inborn nature [Jataka 1:309].
to chastity, the example of the maiden who text of a defined family structure distinct
from the earlier structure. Some of these Even the Ramayana associates most
abandoned her child (indicating definite women with being essentially weak and sin-,
notions of legitimate reproduction) reiterates elements are captured in the Buddhist origin
myth where the institution of caste, private ful. According to Kausalya women do not
that patriarchal control over women was in- care for a good family,' good deeds, or
stitutionalised [Rig Veda I V.I 9.9; IV.30.16]. property, the family, and the archaic state
are represented as emerging simultaneously wisdom, and their hearts are ever inconstant
The post-Vedic literature reflects a two- from an earlier stage of primitive existence (II. 39.236-240]. The sage Agastya states that
fold development of ideology. While Aryan [Digha Nikaya III 80ff]. These changes, i e, it has been a woman's nature ever since crea-
women were being marginalised in terms of the emergence of a fairly stratified society tion began to cling to a man only when he
their original roles in the sacrifice their roles and the collapse of tribal economy and poli- prospers, and desert him in difficulty; their
in the productive system were also chang- ty in the post-Vedic period, especially with fickle natures are modelled on the flashes
ing. The increasing dependence on the establishment of private control over of lightning (III.3.6]. Anasuya complains
agriculture as the major source of food land (Chakravarti 1987: 23ffl, held and that normally women do not know right
shifted the scene of food production outside transmitted within a patrilineal system, ac- jfrom wrong, and even though they are
the households to the fields; the labour of companied by the beginning also of patri- dependent on their husbands for protection
the subjugated peoples including dasis was lineal succession to kingship, and the preser- they wander about with their hearts subject
extracted to work the land and this enabled vation of caste purity meant that the sexual only to their own desires [11.117.26]. All these
the Aryan woman's labour to be restricted behaviour of certain categories of women examples are used by Tryambaka, the author
to the household. Thereafter the participa: needed to be closely guarded. Wives in par- of the Stridharmapaddhati to stress the in-
tion of a certain class of women in "produc- ticular required to be under male control and nate wickedness of women in a general sense,
tion' that was valued ceased. Such women this view finds explicit mention in a later but there are more specific forms of the
from then onward were associated only with text, the Apastamba Dharma Sutra (circa 6th innate impurity and sinfulness of women
reproduction. Whether these developments century BC), which rules that a husband which come closer to the problem of sexuali-
took place with the compliance of Aryan should ensure that no other man goes near ty. According to Tryambaka's version of
women or not (the dasis of course would his wife lest his seed get into her [II.6.13.7]. Manu's 'Stripumdharma' (written for
have had no active part to play in the crea- women in the 18th century) women are in-
tion of such a system), a degree of tension It is at this point that a sharp distinction nately promiscuous, fickle minded, lacking
between men and women may be discerned required to be made between motherhood in love, and unfaithful to their husbands even
even in the Rig Vedic literature where the and female sexuality with the latter being when closely guarded. One reason for their
relationship between the gods and goddesses channelised only into legitimate motherhood innate impurity is represented as stemming
is often depicted as hostile. There are within a tightly controlled structure of from the fact that women became recipients
references aJso to suggest that women must reproduction which ensured caste purity (by of the guilt of brahmicide, alongwith the
be rendered powerless by ensuring that they mating only with prescribed partners) and earth and trees, which was shifted upon
do not gain in strength and are obedient to patrilineal succession (by restricting mating them by Indra when he killed Vishwarupa
men and follow them [Roy 1987: 23-30]. only with one man). From then on female and they thus, became impure [Leslie: 251].
sexuality had to be 'managed' and therefore Menstruation, according to this myth, was
The need for monitoring women's sexuali- associated with women's participation in
ty is also evident. It appears that women's a crucial question for us to pursue is "in
whose hands does the management of brahmin murder. It is a mark of a woman's
sexuality is viewed as a threat, particularly innate impurity and at the same time her in-
in relation to the sacrifice. Thus Dirghajivi, female sexuality come to reside; further do
women participate in this process of mana- nate sexuality [O'Flaherty 1976: 153ff].
a demoness whose sexual appetite is
represented as ghoulish, is described as be- gement?" The congenital fickleness of women's
ing tamed by a handsome man Sumitra who This was the general context in which nature is specially pertinent to the problem
thus neutralises the danger that she presents women's 'essential nature' came to be iden- of dealing with the innately overflowing and
to the sacrifice [Roy 31; O'Flaherty 1984: tified with their sexuality although it was not uncontrollable sexuality of women. Thus in
101-03]. The earliest references to the need directly or explicitly associated as such. At the ancient texts it is repeatedly stated that
to specially guard wives is also evident dur- a general level the innate nature of women they can never be trusted; further the
ing this period. The Satapatha Brahmana was represented as sinful. According to one Mahabharata states that they are difficult to
.expresses the fear that the wife might go to text, women have been sinful right from the control. The cunning tricks of the demons
other men [SB1 3.1.21 J. Most significantly beginning when the creator first made the are known to be unique to women
there is a very embryonic notion of ultimate five gross elements, the three worlds, and he [XIII.39.5J. In another text they are linked
control over women's sexual behaviour be- gave shape to men and women [Leslie 1989: to kings and creeping vines in that they will
ing asserted by the king. The Satapatha 248]. Women are the edge of a razor, poison, embrace whatever is beside them. They are
Brahmana [H.5.20] states that the divine 'ra- snakes, and fire all rolled into one [Leslie adulterous by nature and are permanently
ja' Varuna seizes the woman who has 1989]. At the time of creation the original on the look-out for an opportunity to seduce
adulterous intercourse with men other than Manu allocated to women the habit of lying, men: according to a Jataka story "As greedy
her husband. Read along with another state- sitting around and an indiscriminate love of cows seek pasture a new, women unsated
ment in the same text [X1.4.3.lff] which ornaments, anger, meanness, treachery, and yearn for mate on mate" [Jataka 1:155].
alludes to kingdom being obtained by bad conduct [Manu, IX 17]. As early as the The notion thai the essential nature of
depriving the goddess Sri of all her qualities Satapatha Brahmana we are told that a women is vested in their sexuality is dealt