GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

Module 4, Lesson 1: Quantum Mechanical Model of an Atom

As scientists are getting to know the atoms
better through knowing their basic structure, they
wanted to understand the atoms further through the
question how do atoms behave? Scientists had
always assumed that particles of atoms are like the
bounding ball, and energy is continuous, which
meant that any amount of energy could be released
in a radiation process. Scientists became engrossed
in studying radiation that time. (See Lesson 1,
Module 3)
Clinton Davisson, Lester Germer, G. P. Thomson
- Supported de Broglie’s proposition
- by directing a view of electrons through a thin
piece of gold foil, Thomson obtained a set of
concentric rings on a screen.
- “X-rays and electron diffraction patterns are
similar”
- This proves that electrons possess wave-like
properties

Max Planck

- discovered that atoms and molecules emitted

energy only in discrete quantities or quanta. This
idea revolutionized the idea and the study of
matter and their behavior as well.
- The observations paved the way for the
development of quantum theory.
Through Planck’s ideas, other scientists followed,
including Albert Einstein. From his experiments, he
discovered the photoelectric effect.
Werner Heisenberg
Niels Bohr
o It is impossible to know simultaneously both
- The electrons are just allowed to occupy certain
the momentum and position of a particle with
orbits of specified energies—which highly
certainty
supports Planck, that energy is quantized or in
o Uncertainty principle
discrete quantities.
Erwin Schrodinger
Louis de Broglie
o Explained the idea through an equation
- Electrons can possess
o An equation can take into account the wave
wave properties.
and particle properties of an electron
- If light waves can behave
like a stream of particles,
then, perhaps, particles like
electrons can possess
wave properties
- He pointed out that if electrons are like static
waves outside the nucleus, they have specific
areas or regions in an orbit wherein they are
allowed to move
- de Broglie’s proposition was supported by the
evidences of

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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Module 4, Lesson 2: Quantum Numbers
The image illustrated the most of the
scientist’s idea regarding the atom. Having nucleus,
proton, electron, neutron. The electrons travel in
shells. Due to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle,
electrons are more accurately depicted as clouds
outside the atom’s nucleus
. quantum number, n
- Electrons are grouped around the nucleus
according to energy levels, known as shells. The
innermost shell has the lowest energy levels.
- Electrons are further grouped in the shell based
on the shape of the region of space they occupy,
known as subshells and have four designations,
s, p, d, and f.
- Each subshell has its own electron capacity. e
- Within each subshell, electrons are grouped into
orbitals, which are regions of space in an atom
where the specific electrons have the highest
probability of being located
- Each orbital holds 2 electrons with different
speed.
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Schrodinger’s equation gives out the possible
energy states the electron can occupy in an atom,
and identifies the corresponding wave functions.
These energy states and wave functions are
characterized by a set of quantum numbers. The
quantum numbers describe the behavior of electrons.
- Principal quantum number (n)
o Can have integral values 1, 2, ,3 and so forth
o The value of n determines the energy of an
orbital
- Angular momentum/azimuthal quantum number
(l)
o Tells us the “shape” of the orbitals
o Depend on the value of the principal
o For a given value of n, it has possible integral
values from 0 to (n-1)
- Magnetic quantum number (ml)
o Describes the orientation of the orbital in
space
o Within the subshell, the value of ml depends
on the value of the angular momentum
quantum number. For a certain value of l,
there are (2l+1) integral values of ml
- Electron spin quantum number (ms)
o Each orbital holds 2 electrons with opposite
spin
o There are two possible spinning motions of
an electron, one clockwise (+½) and the
other counterclockwise (-½)
o The spin of electrons in an orbital can result
to attraction or repulsion of a magnetic field
o Atoms can be paramagnetic and
diamagnetic
▪ Para magnetism – attraction of a
material to an external magnetic field. In
order for an atom to be paramagnetic, it
has to have at least one unpaired
electron in an orbital
▪ Diamagnetism – repulsion of a material
to an external magnetic field. Therefore,
atoms can be diamagnetic when all
electrons in an orbital are paired
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Module 4, Lesson 3: Electronic Configuration
The orbital designation of atoms made rise of
electronic configuration
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
- The specific arrangement of electrons in the
shells and subshells of atoms
- Tells us the “address” of electrons in an atom
- The electron configuration is written in this
manner and each is based on the principal
quantum number, angular momentum quantum
number, and number of electrons in the orbital
ORBITAL DIAGRAM
- The electrons in the orbital can be illustrated
using orbital diagrams. In this kind of diagram, we
use squares with arrows inside. The squares
indicate the orbitals while the arrow indicates the
electrons.
Electronic Configuration Guidelines
1. Electrons occupy the lowest energy orbitals
available
a. Aufbau principle (“building up”) – dictates
that as protons are added one by one to the
nucleus to build up the elements, electrons
are similarly added to the atomic orbitals
b. Due to the Aufbau principle, the n + l rule is
established, it states that the lower the sum
of n and l values of an orbital, the lower the
energy of the orbital
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c. For the 1s, the principal quantum number is
1, and the l value for s orbital is 0, which
means 1+0 is 1.
2. Each orbital can hold only two electrons, which
must be of opposite spin.
a. Pauli’s exclusion principle states that no two
electrons in an atom can have the same four
quantum numbers.
3. Two or more orbitals with the same energy are
each half-filled by one electron before any one
orbital is completely filled by addition of the
second electron
a. Hund’s rule states that the most stable
arrangement of electrons in subshells is the
one with the greatest number of parallel
spins.
b. Therefore, in putting electrons intro orbitals,
we go upward first in designating it before
downward.
The elements of the same period share the
same principles quantum number “n” which
describes both the size and the energy of the atoms’
outermost electron shell. For groups 1A and 2A, the
s orbital is filled for groups 3A to noble gases, the p
orbital is filled, the transition metals occupy the d
orbitals, and the lanthanide and actinide occupy the f
orbital.
SHORTHAND NOTATION
- identifying the noble gas core of the element we
have to take note of the atomic number of the
noble gas, and write the remaining orbitals.
Electron Configuration of ions
- Cations have decreased electrons while anions
have increased electrons (see Lesson 3, Module
3)
GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1 (SCRATCH PAPER)