Submitted by: Joel C.

Pelausa Course Subject: Human Anatomy and Physiology (LEC)

Submitted to: Mr. Dennis Locsin 1ST Year BS N RR11
Date: August 12, 2021
THE HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEM
1. The Integumentary System (Skin, Hair Nails)
• is the largest organ of the body, equaling 15-20% of our total body mass. It acts as a barrier to physical,
chemical, and biological agents. The skin prevents water loss and regulates body temperature. It
transmits the senses of touch, pain, and pleasure and maintains body temperature by secreting sweat.
The hair lubricates the scalp, which secretes pheromones and cools or warms our heads. The nails
protect our fingers, which are a major tool used for protecting ourselves and providing ourselves with
food, shelter, and sensations. The skin leaves us most vulnerable when it is compromised by open
wounds, allowing infectious agents into the body.

Major Organ

• The Skin- The skin is the largest and heaviest organ of the body. To function as a protective barrier, it
must cover the entire outside of the body, from the top of a person’s head to the end of the toes. The
skin is approximately 2 mm (0.079 inches) thick and in its entirety weighs nearly 6 pounds.
Layers of the Skin

There are two layers of the skin:

• The epidermis: The outer layer of the skin that makes up its strong protective covering.
• The dermis: Located under the epidermis; most of the structures of the skin are located in the dermis (such
as various types of glands and hair follicles).

• The Hair- is primarily comprised of a fibrous protein and contains a very small amount of lipids (fats) and
water. Hair comes from follicles, which are simple organs made up of cells called epithelial cells. Epithelial
cells are the cells that line the organs and function to provide a protective barrier.
Hair serves to:

• Help protect the skin

• Regulate body temperature
• Lend itself to the evaporation and perspiration process
• Help with the nerve sensing functions of the integumentary system

The Nails- Just like other body parts, nails consist of several segments, including:

• The nail plate: The part of the nail that is visible.

• The nail bed: The skin that lies beneath the nail plate.
• The cuticle: The thin line of tissue that is located at the base of the nail and overlaps the nail plate.
• The nail folds: The folds of the skin located on the sides of the nail plate.
• The lunula: The white-colored half-moon-shaped area located at the base of the nail plate.
• The matrix: Part of the nail that is not visible, located underneath the cuticle, this is the area responsible for
the growth of the fingernail.

The function of the nail is:

• Protection: Protects the fingers and toes from injury or trauma.

• Sensation: Assists with the sense of touch.

2. Skeletal System (Bones and Joints)- supports and protects the body’s internal organs. The ribs protect
the abdominal organs, which are both vulnerable to injury and dangerous to our wellbeing when injured. The
skull protects our brain which controls all functions of our bodies and minds. The skeleton provides the
framework and shape to our bodies. It also connects to our major muscles to allow movement. Bones store
minerals such as calcium and create blood cells in the soft bone tissue called marrow. Bones can break
easily without enough calcium and are subject to such diseases as arthritis; cancers; scoliosis; osteoporosis,
gout; bursitis; fractures and breaks; and amputations.

Major Parts of Skeletal System

The skeletal system is a network of many different parts that work together to help you move. The main part of your
skeletal system consists of your bones, hard structures that create your body’s framework — the skeleton. There
are 206 bones in an adult human skeleton. Each bone has three main layers:

• Periosteum: The periosteum is a tough membrane that covers and protects the outside of the bone.
 • Compact bone: Below the periosteum, compact bone is white, hard, and smooth. It provides structural
support and protection.
• Spongy bone: The core, inner layer of the bone is softer than compact bone. It has small holes called pores
to store marrow.

The other components of your skeletal system include:

• Cartilage: This smooth and flexible substance covers the tips of your bones where they meet. It enables
bones to move without friction (rubbing against each other). When cartilage wears away, as in arthritis, it can
be painful and cause movement problems.
• Joints: A joint is where two or more bones in the body come together. There are three different joint types.
The types of joints are:
o Immovable joints: Immovable joints don’t let the bones move at all, like the joints between your
skull bones.
o Partly movable joints: These joints allow limited movement. The joints in your rib cage are partly
movable joints.
o Movable joints: Movable joints allow a wide range of motion. Your elbow, shoulder, and knee are
movable joints.
• Ligaments: Bands of strong connective tissue called ligaments hold bones together.
• Tendons: Tendons are bands of tissue that connect the ends of a muscle to your bone.

3. Muscular System (Cardiac, Smooth, and Skeletal Muscles)- is a set of tissues in the body with the ability
to change shape. Muscle cells connect together and eventually to elements of the skeletal system. When
the muscle cells contract, force is created as the muscles pull against the skeleton.

Major Organs:

• Cardiac muscles are found in the heart and power the actions that maintain blood flow through our body;
• Smooth, or involuntary muscles are found in the heart and organs, they surround the internal organs and
are responsible for their movement such as moving food through the digestive tract; and
• Skeletal, or voluntary muscles, are responsible for carrying out the actions and movements caused by
messages sent from our brains through our nervous system. Skeletal muscles are also responsible for
maintaining posture and producing heat. When muscles lack appropriate levels of oxygen they can cramp
and tear, creating pain. When not used they can atrophy and become useless. Diseases and disorders of
 the muscular system include muscular dystrophy; fibromyalgia; tendinitis; multiple sclerosis; and muscle
strain or sprains; hernias.

4. Lymphatic System (Red Bone Marrow, Thymus, Lymphatic Vessels, Thoracic Duct, Spleen, Lymph
Nodes)

VA Equivalent for rating – Hemic & Lymphatic System (for VA rating this system also includes blood)

This system transports clean fluids in our body back to the blood and drains excess fluids and debris from the
tissues and cells of the body. It also houses the white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in protecting our bodies
from infection. Diseases and disorders specific to the lymphatic system include anemias; leukemia; tuberculosis of
the lymph nodes; Hodgkin’s disease; and other blood disorders.

lymphatic system has many functions. Its key functions include:

• Maintains fluid levels in your body: As just described, the lymphatic system collects excess fluid that
drains from cells and tissue throughout your body and returns it to your bloodstream, which is then
recirculated through your body.
• Absorbs fats from the digestive tract: Lymph includes fluids from your intestines that contain fats and
proteins and transports it back to your bloodstream.
• Protects your body against foreign invaders: The lymphatic system is part of the immune system. It
produces and releases lymphocytes (white blood cells) and other immune cells that monitor and then
destroy the foreign invaders — such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi — that may enter your body.
• Transports and removes waste products and abnormal cells from the lymph.

Major Parts of Lymphatic System

• Lymph: Lymph, also called lymphatic fluid, is a collection of the extra fluid that drains from cells and tissues
(that is not reabsorbed into the capillaries) plus other substances. The other substances include proteins,
minerals, fats, nutrients, damaged cells, cancer cells and foreign invaders (bacteria, viruses, etc). Lymph
also transports infection-fighting white blood cells (lymphocytes).
• Lymph nodes: Lymph nodes are bean-shaped glands that monitor and cleanse the lymph as it filters
through them. The nodes filter out the damaged cells and cancer cells. These lymph nodes also produce
and store lymphocytes and other immune system cells that attack and destroy bacteria and other harmful
substances in the fluid. You have about 600 lymph nodes scattered throughout your body. Some exist as a
single node; others are closely connected groups called chains. A few of the more familiar locations of lymph
nodes are in your armpit, groin and neck. Lymph nodes are connected to others by the lymphatic vessels. ·
• Lymphatic vessels: Lymphatic vessels are the network of capillaries (micro vessels) and a large network of
tubes located throughout your body that transport lymph away from tissues. Lymphatic vessels collect and
filter lymph (at the nodes) as it continues to move toward larger vessels called collecting ducts. These
vessels operate very much like your veins do: They work under very low pressure, have a series of valves in
them to keep the fluid moving in one direction.
• Collecting ducts: Lymphatic vessels empty the lymph into the right lymphatic duct and left lymphatic duct
(also called the thoracic duct). These ducts connect to the subclavian vein, which returns lymph to your
bloodstream. The subclavian vein runs below your collarbone. Returning lymph to the bloodstream helps to
maintain normal blood volume and pressure. It also prevents the excess buildup of fluid around the tissues
(called edema).
• Spleen: This largest lymphatic organ is located on your left side under your ribs and above your stomach.
The spleen filters and stores blood and produces white blood cells that fight infection or disease.
• Thymus: This organ is located in the upper chest beneath the breast bone. It matures a specific type of
white blood cell that fights off foreign organisms.
• Tonsils and adenoid: These lymphoid organs trap pathogens from the food you eat and the air you
breathe. They are your body’s first line of defense against foreign invaders.
• Bone marrow: This is the soft, spongy tissue in the center of certain bones, such as the hip bone and
breastbone. White blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets are made in the bone marrow.
• Peyer’s patches: These are small masses of lymphatic tissue in the mucous membrane that lines your
small intestine. These lymphoid cells monitor and destroy bacteria in the intestines.
• Appendix: Your appendix contains lymphoid tissue that can destroy bacteria before it breaches the intestine
wall during absorption. Scientists also believe the appendix plays a role in housing “good bacteria” and
repopulating our gut with good bacteria after an infection has cleared.
 5. Respiratory System – (Nasal Cavity, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchus, Lung)

This system maintains our breathing. It supplies the body with oxygen for cellular respiration by collecting oxygen in
the lungs and disposes of carbon dioxide by breathing out the waste product. It also provides our functions of
speech and smell. Diseases and disorders of the respiratory system include allergies; rhinitis and sinusitis;
laryngitis; COPD; pleurisy; bronchitis; emphysema; asthma; sarcoidosis; fibrosis; asbestosis; pulmonary vascular
diseases; fungal or bacterial infections of the lungs; sleep apnea; tuberculosis of the respiratory system; and lung,
throat, and other respiratory cancers.

Major Parts of Respiratory System

The respiratory system has many different parts that work together to help you breathe. Each group of parts has
many separate components.

Your airways deliver air to your lungs. Your airways are a complicated system that includes your:

• Mouth and nose: Openings that pull air from outside your body into your respiratory system.
• Sinuses: Hollow areas between the bones in your head that help regulate the temperature and humidity of
the air you inhale.
• Pharynx (throat): Tube that delivers air from your mouth and nose to the trachea (windpipe).
• Trachea: Passage connecting your throat and lungs.
• Bronchial tubes: Tubes at the bottom of your windpipe that connect into each lung.
• Lungs: Two organs that remove oxygen from the air and pass it into your blood.

From your lungs, your bloodstream delivers oxygen to all your organs and other tissues.

Muscles and bones help move the air you inhale into and out of your lungs. Some of the bones and muscles in the
respiratory system include your:

• Diaphragm: Muscle that helps your lungs pull in air and push it out.
• Ribs: Bones that surround and protect your lungs and heart.

When you breathe out, your blood carries carbon dioxide and other waste out of the body. Other components that
work with the lungs and blood vessels include:

• Alveoli: Tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.
• Bronchioles: Small branches of the bronchial tubes that lead to the alveoli.
• Capillaries: Blood vessels in the alveoli walls that move oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• Lung lobes: Sections of the lungs — three lobes in the right lung and two in the left lung.
• Pleura: Thin sacs that surround each lung lobe and separate your lungs from the chest wall.

Some of the other components of your respiratory system include:

• Cilia: Tiny hairs that move in a wave-like motion to filter dust and other irritants out of your airways.
• Epiglottis: Tissue flap at the entrance to the trachea that closes when you swallow to keep food and liquids
out of your airway.
• Larynx (voice box): Hollow organ that allows you to talk and make sounds when air moves in and out.
 6. Digestive system (Oral Cavity, Esophagus, Liver, Stomach, Small Intestine, Large Intestine, Rectum,
Anus)

Beginning with our mouths, this system is responsible for the breaking down and absorption of nutrients and the
elimination of the waste not utilized by the body. It is responsible for identifying which minerals, vitamins, and other
essentials from the foods we eat can be absorbed and utilized or stored by the body and which are to be disposed
of, and carrying out those functions. Diseases and disorders of the digestive system include diverticulitis; gastritis;
pancreatitis; cholecystitis; cirrhosis; hepatitis; liver cancer; irritable bowel or colon syndromes; Crone’s disease; and
hemorrhoids.

Major Parts of Digestive System

• Mouth

The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact, digestion starts before you even take a bite. Your salivary
glands get active as you see and smell that pasta dish or warm bread. After you start eating, you chew your food
into pieces that are more easily digested. Your saliva mixes with the food to begin to break it down into a form your
body can absorb and use. When you swallow, your tongue passes the food into your throat and into your
esophagus.

• Esophagus

Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe), the esophagus receives food from your mouth when you
swallow. The epiglottis is a small flap that folds over your windpipe as you swallow to prevent you from choking
(when food goes into your windpipe). A series of muscular contractions within the esophagus called peristalsis
delivers food to your stomach.

But first a ring-like muscle at the bottom of your esophagus, called the lower esophageal sphincter, has to relax to
let the food in. The sphincter then contracts and prevents the contents of the stomach from flowing back into the
esophagus. (When it doesn’t and these contents flow back into the esophagus, you may experience acid reflux or
heartburn.)

• Stomach

The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed with stomach enzymes. These
enzymes continue the process of breaking down food into a usable form. Cells in the lining of the stomach secrete a
strong acid and powerful enzymes that are responsible for the breakdown process. When the contents of the
stomach are processed enough, they’re released into the small intestine.

• Small intestine

Made up of three segments -- the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum -- the small intestine is a 22-foot-long muscular
tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from the liver. Peristalsis also works
in this organ, moving food through and mixing it with digestive juices from the pancreas and liver.

The duodenum is the first segment of the small intestine. It’s largely responsible for the continuous breaking-down
process. The jejunum and ileum lower in the intestine are mainly responsible for absorption of nutrients into the
bloodstream.

Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid, and end in a liquid form after passing through the organ. Water,
bile, enzymes and mucus contribute to the change in consistency. Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the
leftover-food residue liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then moves on to the large intestine, or colon.

• Pancreas

The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum that break down protein, fats and carbohydrates. The
pancreas also makes insulin, passing it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is the chief hormone in your body for
metabolizing sugar.

• Liver

The liver has many functions, but its main job within the digestive system is to process the nutrients absorbed from
the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat
and some vitamins.

The liver is the body's chemical "factory." It takes the raw materials absorbed by the intestine and makes all the
various chemicals the body needs to function.

The liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It breaks down and secretes many drugs that can be toxic to
the body.

• Gallbladder

The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile from the liver, and then releases it into the duodenum in the small
intestine to help absorb and digest fats.

• Colon (large intestine)

The large intestine, or colon, is responsible for processing waste so that emptying the bowels is easy and
convenient. It’s a 6-foot-long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum.

The large intestine is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across) colon, the
descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which connects to the rectum.

Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by means of peristalsis, first in a
liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool passes through the colon, water is removed. Stool is stored in the
sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a "mass movement" empties it into the rectum once or twice a day.

It normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris and bacteria.
These “good” bacteria perform several useful functions, such as synthesizing various vitamins, processing waste
products and food particles and protecting against harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full of
stool, or feces, it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination (a bowel movement).
 • Rectum

The rectum is a straight, 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. The rectum's job is to receive stool
from the colon, let you know that there is stool to be evacuated (pooped out) and to hold the stool until evacuation
happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain. The brain then
decides if the rectal contents can be released or not.

If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If the contents cannot be disposed,
the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodate so that the sensation temporarily goes away.

• Anus

The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch-long canal consisting of the pelvic floor muscles and the
two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the upper anus is able to detect rectal contents. It lets you
know whether the contents are liquid, gas or solid.

The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of stool. The pelvic floor muscle
creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool from coming out when it’s not supposed to. The
internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool enters the rectum. This keeps us continent (prevents us from
pooping involuntarily) when we are asleep or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool.

When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter to hold the stool until reaching a toilet,
where it then relaxes to release the contents.
 7. Nervous System– (Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves)

This system is actually made up of two distinct parts; the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous
system. The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system is
made up of all the nerves that lead into and out of the CNS to other parts of the body. The entire nervous system
controls all of the other systems of the body, such as digestion and cardiac rhythm, and responds to internal and
external changes, such as activating muscles and breathing. It also transmits information to the brain, such as pain
and external sensations.

Diseases and disorders of the nervous system include paralysis; Parkinson’s Disease; palsy, embolisms;
thrombosis; arteriosclerosis; polio; myelitis; ALS; meningitis; Multiple Sclerosis; muscular tics; Huntington’s Disease;
cancers of the brain, spinal cord or nerves; epilepsy, seizure disorders; narcolepsy; migraine headaches; peripheral
neuropathy; and traumatic brain injury.

Major Parts of Nervous System

The nervous system has two main parts. Each part contains billions of cells called neurons, or nerve cells. These
special cells send and receive electrical signals through your body to tell it what to do.

The main parts of the nervous system are:

Central nervous system (CNS): Your brain and spinal cord make up your CNS. Your brain uses your nerves to
send messages to the rest of your body. Each nerve has a protective outer layer called myelin. Myelin insulates the
nerve and helps the messages get through.

Peripheral nervous system: Your peripheral nervous system consists of many nerves that branch out from your
CNS all over your body. This system relays information from your brain and spinal cord to your organs, arms, legs,
fingers and toes. Your peripheral nervous system contains your:

• Somatic nervous system, which guides your voluntary movements.

• Autonomic nervous system, which controls the activities you do without thinking about them.

Major Parts of a Neuron

• Dendrites- are tree-like extensions at the beginning of a neuron that help increase the surface area of the
cell body. These tiny protrusions receive information from other neurons and transmit electrical stimulation to
the soma. Dendrites are also covered with synapses.

Characteristics
 • Have many dendrites, or only one dendrite
• Are short and highly branched
• Transmit information to the cell body

Most neurons possess these branch-like extensions that extend outward away from the cell body. These dendrites
then receive chemical signals from other neurons, which are then converted into electrical impulses that are
transmitted toward the cell body.

Some neurons have very small, short dendrites, while other cells possess very long ones. The neurons of the
central nervous systems have very long and complex dendrites that then receive signals from as many as a
thousand other neurons.

If the electrical impulses transmitted inward toward the cell body are large enough, they will generate an action
potential. This results in the signal being transmitted down the axon.

• Soma- or cell body, is where the signals from the dendrites are joined and passed on. The soma and the
nucleus do not play an active role in the transmission of the neural signal. Instead, these two structures
serve to maintain the cell and keep the neuron functional.

Characteristics

• Contains numerous organelles involved in a variety of cell functions

• Contains a cell nucleus that produces RNA that directs the synthesis of proteins
• Supports and maintains the functioning of the neuron

Think of the cell body as a small factory that fuels the neuron.

The soma produces the proteins that the other parts of the neuron, including the dendrites, axons, and synapses,
need to function properly.

The support structures of the cell include mitochondria, which provide energy for the cell, and the Golgi apparatus,
which packages products created by the cell and dispatches them to various locations inside and outside the cell.

• Axon Hillock- is located at the end of the soma and controls the firing of the neuron. If the total strength of
the signal exceeds the threshold limit of the axon hillock, the structure will fire a signal (known as an action
potential) down the axon.

The axon hillock acts as something of a manager, summing the total inhibitory and excitatory signals. If the sum of
these signals exceeds a certain threshold, the action potential will be triggered and an electrical signal will then be
transmitted down the axon away from the cell body. This action potential is caused by changes in ion channels
which are affected by changes in polarization.

Characteristics

• Acts as something of a manager, summing the total inhibitory

• Possesses an internal polarization of approximately -70mV in normal resting state

When a signal is received by the cell, it causes sodium ions to enter the cell and reduce the polarization. If the axon
hillock is depolarized to a certain threshold, an action potential will fire and transmit the electrical signal down the
axon to the synapses.

It is important to note that the action potential is an all-or-nothing process and those signals are not partially
transmitted. The neurons either fire or they do not.
 • Axon- is the elongated fiber that extends from the cell body to the terminal endings and transmits the neural
signal. The larger the diameter of the axon, the faster it transmits information.

Some axons are covered with a fatty substance called myelin that acts as an insulator. These myelinated axons
transmit information much faster than other neurons.

Characteristics

• Most neurons have only one axon

• Transmit information away from the cell body
• May or may not have a myelin covering
• Range dramatically in size, from 0.1 millimeters to over 3 feet long

The myelin surrounding the neurons protects the axon and aids in the speed of transmission. The myelin sheath is
broken up by points known as the nodes of Ranvier or myelin sheath gaps. Electrical impulses are able to jump from
one node to the next, which plays a role in speeding up the transmission of the signal.

Axons connect with other cells in the body including other neurons, muscle cells, and organs. These connections
occur at junctions known as synapses.

The synapses allow electrical and chemical messages to be transmitted from the neuron to the other cells in the
body.

• Terminal Buttons and Synapses

The terminal buttons are located at the end of the neuron and are responsible for sending the signal on to other
neurons. At the end of the terminal button is a gap known as a synapse. Neurotransmitters are used to carry the
signal across the synapse to other neurons. When an electrical signal reaches the terminal buttons,
neurotransmitters are then released into the synaptic gap.

Characteristics

• Contain vesicles holding the neurotransmitters

• Convert the electrical impulses into chemical signals
• Cross the synapse where they are received by other nerve cells
• Responsible for the reuptake of any excessive neurotransmitters released during this process
 8. Endocrine System– (Pineal Gland, Pituitary Gland, Thyroid Gland, Thymus, Adrenal Gland,
Pancreas, Ovary, Testis)

The glands of the endocrine system secrete chemicals called hormones that regulate most of the processes in
our bodies such as growth, reproduction, metabolism, and even the control of the amount of glucose in our
blood.

Major Parts of Endocrine System

The endocrine system is made up of organs called glands. Glands produce and release different hormones that
target specific things in the body. You have glands all over your body, including in your neck, brain and reproductive
organs. Some glands are tiny, about the size of a grain of rice or a pea. The largest gland is the pancreas, which is
about 6 inches long.

The main glands that produce hormones include:

• Hypothalamus: This gland is located in your brain and controls your endocrine system. It uses information
from your nervous system to determine when to tell other glands, including the pituitary gland, to produce
hormones. The hypothalamus controls many processes in your body, including your mood, hunger and
thirst, sleep patterns and sexual function.
• Pituitary: This little gland is only about the size of a pea, but it has a big job. It makes hormones that control
several other glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, ovaries and testicles. The pituitary gland is in
charge of many different functions, including how your body grows. It’s located at the base of your brain.
• Thyroid: Your thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck. It’s responsible for your
metabolism (how your body uses energy).
• Parathyroid: These four tiny glands are no larger than a grain of rice. They control the level of calcium in
your body. For your heart, kidneys, bones and nervous system to work, you need the right amount of
calcium.
• Adrenal: You have two adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. They control your metabolism, blood
pressure, sexual development and response to stress.
• Pineal: This gland manages your sleep cycle by releasing melatonin, a hormone that causes you to feel
sleepy.
• Pancreas: Your pancreas is part of your endocrine system, and it plays a significant role in your digestive
system too. It makes a hormone called insulin that controls the level of sugar in your blood.
• Ovaries: In women, the ovaries release sex hormones called estrogen, progesterone and testosterone.
Women have two ovaries in their lower abdomen, one on either side.
• Testes: In men, the testes (testicles) make sperm and release the hormone testosterone. This hormone
affects sperm production, muscle strength and sex drive.
9. Circulatory System-- The heart, made of cardiac muscle, pumps blood and blood vessels such as arteries
and veins, transport the blood to every part of our body providing organs and muscles with nourishment. The
blood carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste and more throughout the body.

- also known as your cardiovascular system, is made up of your heart and blood vessels. It works to
transport oxygen and other nutrients to all the organs and tissues in your body. It also works to
remove carbon dioxide and other waste products.

- Having a healthy circulatory system is vital to your health and well-being. Continue reading as we
delve deeper into the circulatory system, its function, and what you can do to keep your heart and
blood vessels in good shape.

Major Parts of Circulatory System

• Heart. This muscular organ works to pump blood throughout your body via an intricate network of blood
vessels.

• Arteries. These thick-walled blood vessels carry oxygenated blood away from your heart.

• Veins. These blood vessels carry deoxygenated blood back toward your heart.

• Capillaries. These tiny blood vessels facilitate the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste between your
circulatory system and your organs and tissues.
 10. Urinary System- This system is responsible for eliminating waste products of metabolism and other
materials from the body that are of no use. The system is also responsible for maintaining the balanced fluid
volume in our bodies by regulating the amount of water that is excreted, maintaining the concentrations of
electrolytes, and normal pH levels of the blood.

- works as a filter, removing toxins and wastes from your body through urine. It uses a series of tubes
and ducts to pass this waste. These tubes are connected to your blood vessels and digestive
system. Your urinary system helps the rest of your body work properly.

Major Parts of Urinary System

The kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra make up the urinary system. They all work together to filter, store and
remove liquid waste from your body. Here’s what each organ does:

• Kidneys: These organs work constantly. They filter your blood and make urine, which your body eliminates.
You have two kidneys, one on either side of the back of your abdomen, just below your rib cage. Each
kidney is about as big as your fist.
• Ureters: These two thin tubes inside your pelvis carry urine from your kidneys to your bladder.
• Bladder: Your bladder holds urine until you’re ready to empty it (pee). It’s hollow, made of muscle, and
shaped like a balloon. Your bladder expands as it fills up. Most bladders can hold up to 2 cups of urine.
• Urethra: This tube carries urine from your bladder out of your body. It ends in an opening to the outside of
your body in the penis (in males) or in front of the vagina (in females).

11. Reproductive System

MALE (prostate gland, penis, testis, scrotum, ductus deferens)
FEMALE (Mammary glands, ovary, uterus, vagina, fallopian tube)

- The reproductive system mainly functions to create human life. Ovaries produce female sex
hormones and eggs. Eggs are fertilized in the fallopian tube by sperm then travel to the uterus,
which provides the site for growth. The mammary glands produce milk for the newborn .

Male Reproductive System- includes a group of organs that make up a man’s reproductive and urinary system.
These organs do the following jobs within your body:

• They produce, maintain and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and semen (the protective fluid
around sperm).
 • They discharge sperm into the female reproductive tract.
• They produce and secrete male sex hormones.

The male reproductive system is made up of internal (inside your body) and external (outside your body) parts.
Together, these organs help you urinate (rid your body of liquid waste materials), have sexual intercourse and make
children.

Anatomy of Male Reproductive System

Most of the male reproductive system is located outside of your abdominal cavity or pelvis. The external parts of the
male reproductive system include the penis, the scrotum and the testicles.

Penis

The penis is the male organ for sexual intercourse. It has three parts:

• The root: This is the part of the penis that attaches to the wall of your abdomen.
• The body or shaft: Shaped like a tube or cylinder, the body of the penis is made up of three internal
chambers. Inside these chambers there’s a special, sponge-like erectile tissue that contains thousands of
large spaces that fill with blood when you’re sexually aroused. As the penis fills with blood, it becomes rigid
and erect, which allows for penetration during sex. The skin of the penis is loose and elastic, allowing for
changes in penis size during an erection.
• The glans: This is the cone-shaped end of the penis. The glans, which is also called the head of the penis,
is covered with a loose layer of skin called foreskin. This skin is sometimes removed in a procedure
called circumcision.

The opening of the urethra — the tube that transports both semen and urine out of the body — is located at the tip
of the glans penis. The penis also contains many sensitive nerve endings.

Semen, which contains sperm, is expelled (ejaculated) through the end of the penis when a man reaches sexual
climax (orgasm). When the penis is erect, the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to be
ejaculated at orgasm.

Scrotum

The scrotum is the loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind the penis. It holds the testicles (also called
testes), as well as many nerves and blood vessels. The scrotum protects your testes, as well as providing a sort of
climate control system. For normal sperm development, the testes must be at a temperature slightly cooler than the
body temperature. Special muscles in the wall of the scrotum allow it to contract (tighten) and relax, moving the
testicles closer to the body for warmth and protection or farther away from the body to cool the temperature.

Testicles (testes)

The testes are oval organs about the size of very large olives that lie in the scrotum, secured at either end by a
structure called the spermatic cord. Most men have two testes. The testes are responsible for making testosterone,
the primary male sex hormone, and for producing sperm. Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called
seminiferous tubules. These tubules are responsible for producing the sperm cells through a process called
spermatogenesis.

Epididymis

The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests on the backside of each testicle. It carries and stores sperm cells that
are created in the testes. It’s also the job of the epididymis to bring the sperm to maturity — the sperm that emerge
from the testes are immature and incapable of fertilization. During sexual arousal, contractions force the sperm into
the vas deferens.
What are the internal male reproductive organs?

You have several internal organs — also called accessory organs — that play a big part in the male reproductive
system. These organs include:

• Vas deferens: The vas deferens is a long, muscular tube that travels from the epididymis into the pelvic
cavity, to just behind the bladder. The vas deferens transports mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for
ejaculation.
• Ejaculatory ducts: These ducts are formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal vesicles. The
ejaculatory ducts empty into the urethra.
• Urethra: The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside of your body. In males, it has
the additional function of expelling (ejaculating) semen when you reach orgasm. When the penis is erect
during sex, the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated at orgasm.
• Seminal vesicles: The seminal vesicles are sac-like pouches that attach to the vas deferens near the base
of the bladder. The seminal vesicles make a sugar-rich fluid (fructose) that provides sperm with a source of
energy and helps with the sperms’ ability to move (motility). The fluid of the seminal vesicles makes up most
of the volume of your ejaculatory fluid, or ejaculate.
• Prostate gland: The prostate gland is a walnut-sized structure that’s located below the urinary bladder in
front of the rectum. The prostate gland contributes additional fluid to the ejaculate. Prostate fluids also help
to nourish the sperm. The urethra, which carries the ejaculate to be expelled during orgasm, runs through
the center of the prostate gland.
• Bulbourethral glands: The bulbourethral glands, or Cowper’s glands, are pea-sized structures located on
the sides of the urethra, just below the prostate gland. These glands produce a clear, slippery fluid that
empties directly into the urethra. This fluid serves to lubricate the urethra and to neutralize any acidity that
may be present due to residual drops of urine in the urethra.

Female Reproductive System- provides several functions. The ovaries produce the egg cells, called the ova or
oocytes. The oocytes are then transported to the fallopian tube where fertilization by a sperm may occur. The
fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where the uterine lining has thickened in response to the normal hormones
of the reproductive cycle. Once in the uterus, the fertilized egg can implant into thickened uterine lining and continue
to develop. If implantation does not take place, the uterine lining is shed as menstrual flow. In addition, the female
reproductive system produces female sex hormones that maintain the reproductive cycle.

During menopause, the female reproductive system gradually stops making the female hormones necessary for the
reproductive cycle to work. At this point, menstrual cycles can become irregular and eventually stop. One year after
menstrual cycles stop, the woman is considered to be menopausal.
Anatomy of Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive anatomy includes both external and internal structures.

The function of the external female reproductive structures (the genital) is twofold: To enable sperm to enter the
body and to protect the internal genital organs from infectious organisms.

The main external structures of the female reproductive system include:

• Labia majora: The labia majora (“large lips”) enclose and protect the other external reproductive organs.
During puberty, hair growth occurs on the skin of the labia majora, which also contain sweat and oil-
secreting glands.
• Labia minora: The labia minora (“small lips”) can have a variety of sizes and shapes. They lie just inside the
labia majora, and surround the openings to the vagina (the canal that joins the lower part of the uterus to the
outside of the body) and urethra (the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body). This
skin is very delicate and can become easily irritated and swollen.
• Bartholin’s glands: These glands are located next to the vaginal opening on each side and produce a fluid
(mucus) secretion.
• Clitoris: The two labia minora meet at the clitoris, a small, sensitive protrusion that is comparable to the
penis in males. The clitoris is covered by a fold of skin, called the prepuce, which is similar to the foreskin at
the end of the penis. Like the penis, the clitoris is very sensitive to stimulation and can become erect.

The internal reproductive organs include:

• Vagina: The vagina is a canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the outside of the body. It
also is known as the birth canal.
• Uterus (womb): The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ that is the home to a developing fetus. The
uterus is divided into two parts: the cervix, which is the lower part that opens into the vagina, and the main
body of the uterus, called the corpus. The corpus can easily expand to hold a developing baby. A canal
through the cervix allows sperm to enter and menstrual blood to exit.
• Ovaries: The ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on either side of the uterus. The
ovaries produce eggs and hormones.
• Fallopian tubes: These are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part of the uterus and serve as
pathways for the ova (egg cells) to travel from the ovaries to the uterus. Fertilization of an egg by a sperm
normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where it implants to the
uterine lining.
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