Personality and Individual Differences 50 (2011) 43–48

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Personality and Individual Differences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid

The big five, emotional exhaustion and citizenship behaviors in service settings:
The mediating role of emotional labor
Sandra A. Kiffin-Petersen ⇑, Catherine L. Jordan, Geoffrey N. Soutar
Business School, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Emotional labor has been widely studied because of its association with emotional exhaustion. Individual
Received 14 April 2010 differences in emotional labor however, have attracted less research attention. This study examined the
Received in revised form 13 August 2010 mediating role of emotional labor in the relationship between the big five, emotional exhaustion and
Accepted 17 August 2010
organizational citizenship behaviors. Using structural equation modeling it was found that emotionally
Available online 17 September 2010
unstable individuals tended to surface act and this was associated with increased emotional exhaustion.
In contrast, agreeable and extraverted individuals engaged in more deep acting and this had a positive
Keywords:
association with self-reported citizenship behaviors. The implications of the results for future research
Big five
Emotional labor
and practice are discussed.
Emotional exhaustion Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Citizenship behaviors

1. Introduction tion” (Organ, 1988, p. 4). OCBs can be differentiated depending

Emotional labor, which Grandey (2000, p. 97) defined as ‘‘the
process of regulating both feelings and expressions for organiza-
tional goals”, is integral to service workers, including professionals,
sales representatives and front-line service providers (Hochschild,
1983). Prior research has found emotional labor is related to emo-
tional exhaustion (Bono & Vey, 2005), making its study a research
priority (Ashkanasy, Härtel, & Daus, 2002). However, the influence
individual differences have on emotional labor is not well under-
stood. Judge, Woolf, and Hurst (2009) concluded that personality
differences were important in understanding the differential im-
pact of emotional labor on employees working in service roles. If
so, this has important implications for the selection of employees
who interact with customers.
Some studies have found a relationship between the big five
(i.e., extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, emotional sta-
bility, openness to experience) and emotional exhaustion in jobs
high in emotional labor (e.g., Bakker, Van Der Zee, Lewig, & Dollard,
2006; Cano-Garcia, Padilla-Muñoz, & Carrasco-Ortiz, 2005; Zellars,
Perrewé, & Hochwarter, 2000). A relationship has also been found
between personality and organizational citizenship behaviors
(OCBs) (Borman, Penner, Allen, & Motowidlo, 2001; Ilies, Fulmer,
Spitzmuller, & Johnson, 2009; Organ & Ryan, 1995), that is, ‘‘indi-
vidual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly rec-
ognized by the formal reward system, and in the aggregate
promotes the efficient and effective functioning of the organiza-
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 8 6488 3070.
E-mail address: sandra.kiffin-petersen@uwa.edu.au (S.A. Kiffin-Petersen).
on whether the beneficiary is an individual, such as helping a col-
league (OCBI), or the organization, such as working extra hours
(OCBO) (Williams & Anderson, 1991). Here, we test whether sur-
face and deep acting mediate the relationship between the big five,
emotional exhaustion and OCBs, as shown in Fig. 1. We examine
the big five because they are critical to job performance in service
settings (Barrick & Mount, 2005; Forero, Gallardo-Pujol, Maydeu-
Olivares, & Andrés-Pueyo, 2009; Mount, Barrick, & Stewart, 1998).
According to Grandey (2000), emotional regulation is necessary
in service settings because employees are required to express emo-
tions that are consistent with norms, or organizational rules, about
the appropriate emotional display for the situation. Recent re-
search has primarily focused on understanding the emotion regu-
lation strategies of surface and deep acting (Brotheridge & Lee,
2003). Surface acting occurs when individuals modify their out-
ward emotion and body language to conform to rules without
changing their inner feelings, while deep acting involves efforts
to change internal feelings to match the display (Grandey, 2000;
Hochschild, 1983). Surface acting may still be needed when deep
acting to prevent any remaining negative feelings from showing
in an employee’s facial expression (Grandey, 2003). A good per-
son-job fit should mean there is less need for an employee to sur-
face or deep act, as they are more likely to spontaneously
experience the required emotions.
Extraverts, who are outgoing, talkative and sociable, have less
need to surface act as they naturally experience positive emotions
during service interactions (Barrick & Mount, 2005). They should
also find it easier to deep act (Cheung & Tang, 2009) and be less
emotionally exhausted than introverts (Judge et al., 2009).

0191-8869/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.08.018
44 S.A. Kiffin-Petersen et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 50 (2011) 43–48
Extraversion
.15 (.24 H5a)
.22 H2a
Deep Acting
Agreeableness .34 H2c
Emotional
Stability -.24 H1d
Conscientious-
ness
Fig. 1. Standardized parameter estimates for the mediation model of surface and deep acting. Note: Bolded paths indicate constrained relationships for mediation. Bolded
beta values represent significant standardized path coefficients (p < .01). Values in parentheses are path coefficients when the bolded paths are constrained to zero. Significant
and non-significant relationships for Model 2 are shown by the dotted and dashed lines respectively.
Extraversion was positively related to deep acting and negatively
related to surface acting among part-time employed students
(Austin, Dore, & O’Donovan, 2008; Diefendorff, Croyle, & Gosser-
and, 2005). Tan, Foo, Chong, and Ng (2003) also found extraversion
was positively related to facial displays of positive emotions (e.g.,
smiling) among cashiers.
People who are high in conscientiousness are careful, depend-
able, hard-working and organized and, as a result, tend to perform
better, irrespective of their occupation (Barrick & Mount, 1991,
2005). Given the diligence with which conscientious people ap-
proach their work roles, it seems plausible they would work hard
at deep acting in order to modify their inner feelings so as to actu-
ally experience a required emotion (Grandey, 2000). However,
studies of conscientious employees are somewhat mixed, suggest-
ing they may be more inclined to surface act, than deep act (Austin
et al., 2008; Diefendorff et al., 2005).
Agreeableness is considered to be a critical personality attribute
of employees who interact with customers (Barrick & Mount, 2005;
Mount et al., 1998). Since agreeable people genuinely care about
other peoples’ well-being, they are more likely to be empathic
about customer needs through deep acting and to have less need
to surface act. Their more trusting and forgiving nature may lead
to the development of mutually rewarding and satisfying relations
with their customers. However, two studies have found agreeable-
ness was positively correlated with surface and deep acting (Austin
et al., 2008; Diefendorff et al., 2005).
A person who is emotionally unstable tends to be anxious, inse-
cure and tense (Barrick & Mount, 1991). Prior studies have shown
emotionally unstable people are more likely to surface act during
interactions, presumably because it is more difficult for them to
change their feelings (Austin et al., 2008; Cheung & Tang, 2009;
Diefendorff et al., 2005; Tan et al., 2003). Individuals high in neu-
roticism may also find it difficult to cope with the stress associated
with negative events with customers and, thus, also experience dif-
ficulty displaying positive emotions (Tan et al., 2003).
Tan et al. (2003) argued there is no theoretical reason why
openness to experience should be related to the regulation of posi-
tive emotions, such as smiling at customers. Prior studies by Die-
fendorff et al. (2005) and Austin et al. (2008) found no
relationship between openness to experience and emotion regula-
tion. Given the lack of theoretical and empirical support we do not
hypothesize a relationship between openness to experience and
emotional labor.
Emotional
-.22 (-.31 H3d) Exhaustion
.24
.40
.18 (.30 H5c)
OCBI
.38
-.07
Surface
.26 .56
Acting -.18
OCBO
.28
Emotional exhaustion is a significant component of job burnout
and is often a consequence of ‘people work’ (Maslach & Jackson,
1981). A recent meta-analysis found surface acting is associated
with emotional exhaustion (Bono & Vey, 2005). Hobfoll’s (1989)
conservation of resources theory has been suggested as a possible
explanation for this (Brotheridge & Lee, 2003). Because surface act-
ing requires a person to consciously alter their outward emotional
display at the same time they are experiencing another emotion,
greater emotional dissonance is involved than with deep acting
(Martínez-Inigo, Totterdell, Alcover, & Holman, 2007). In jobs
involving frequent and prolonged contact with customers, a per-
son’s emotional reserves can become depleted, especially when
they receive little emotional support. A self-reinforcing and self-
defeating cycle may eventuate in which an employee misguidedly
continues to surface act to try and preserve their energy.
Personality may be an important influence on whether employ-
ees practice surface acting and therefore, experience emotional
exhaustion. Although neuroticism has been found to be related
to nurses’ (Zellars et al., 2000) and counselors’ (Bakker et al.,
2006) emotional exhaustion, the mechanisms by which it influ-
ences exhaustion has received less research attention. Introverted,
unconscientious, disagreeable and emotionally unstable employ-
ees are less able to experience positive emotions during service
encounters and, therefore, have more need to surface act. Their in-
creased surface acting may be associated with increased emotional
exhaustion.
There is also little research into the mechanisms by which per-
sonality influences OCBs (Ilies et al., 2009), despite the perfor-
mance of OCBs being critical to organizational effectiveness
(Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). In service set-
tings, the extent to which an employee engages in surface and deep
acting may influence whether they perform OCBs. Halbesleben and
Bowler (2007) suggested that, as an employee becomes emotion-
ally exhausted from surface acting, they may increase their perfor-
mance of OCBs as a way to obtain social support. The benefits of
helping colleagues, for example, may outweigh the energy expen-
diture. However, it is also possible employees who expend consid-
erable effort in surface acting in high emotional demand jobs may
be less willing to engage in OCBs due to the perceived energy in-
volved. Salami (2007) found a negative relationship between sur-
face acting and OCB and a positive relationship between deep
acting and OCB in a study of public servants. Deep acting may
engender a good mood at work because the person actively tries
 S.A. Kiffin-Petersen et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 50 (2011) 43–48
to feel the emotions that are needed (Johnson & Spector, 2007). The
enhanced psychological well-being associated with positive emo-
tions may have a positive effect on employees’ willingness to per-
form OCBs. Employees who deep act are also thought to have
positive intentions towards the organization, suggesting they
may also perform more discretionary behaviors (Grandey, 2000).
Surface and deep acting may potentially act as mediators in the
relationship between personality and OCBs in service settings. Gi-
ven the preceding arguments, we test the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1. Extraversion (a), conscientiousness (b), agreeable-
ness (c) and emotional stability (d) are negatively related to surface
acting.
Hypothesis 2. Extraversion (a), conscientiousness (b), agreeable-
ness (c) and emotional stability (d) are positively related to deep
acting.
Hypothesis 3. Surface acting mediates the relationship between
extraversion (a), conscientiousness (b), agreeableness (c), emo-
tional stability (d) and emotional exhaustion.
Hypothesis 4. Surface acting mediates the relationship between
extraversion (a), conscientiousness (b), agreeableness (c), emo-
tional stability (d) and OCB.
Hypothesis 5. Deep acting mediates the relationship between
extraversion (a), conscientiousness (b), agreeableness (c), emo-
tional stability (d) and OCB.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
Participants were recruited from an online panel service of full-
time employees who have registered their willingness to partici-
pate in such research. The Australian and New Zealand Standard
Classification of Occupations report published by the Australian
Bureau of Statistics (2006) was used as the basis for selecting the
occupations included in the study. The sample consisted of 625
participants, of whom 35% were professionals, 32% were commu-
nity and personal service workers and 33% were sales and service
employees. Participants were from diverse industry sectors, with
a mean age of 38 years and 6 years tenure and 11 years industry
experience, on average. Sixty-five percent were female.
2.2. Measures
Brotheridge and Lee’s (2003) 15-item scale was used to mea-
sure surface and deep acting, Maslach and Jackson’s (1981) 9-item
scale to measure emotional exhaustion, and Williams and
Anderson’s (1991) 14-item organizational citizenship behavior
scale to measure OCBI and OCBO. The big five personality factors
were measured using Saucier’s (1994) 40-item mini-marker test
because of its parsimony and psychometric properties (Mooradian
& Nezlek, 1996). Participants’ age, education level, hours worked
per week, gender and organizational tenure were also collected.
2.3. Statistical analysis
The AMOS 16.0 structural equation modeling software was used
to test the hypotheses as it allows the estimation of models with
multiple mediators and dependent variables, while also controlling
45
for measurement error (Arbuckle, 2007). A one-factor congeneric
model was estimated for each construct to assess the fit of the ob-
served items on each of the latent variables. Items that did not
have loadings above .50 and/or items with highly correlated error
variances were eliminated until an acceptable fit was achieved. All
constructs met acceptable fit requirements as shown in Table 1
(Hoyle & Panter, 1995). Convergent and discriminant validity were
achieved for all constructs except extraversion (.45) and OCBO
(.47), whose average variance extracted scores were marginally be-
low the acceptable level (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Bagozzi and Ed-
wards’ (1998) partial disaggregation approach was used to reduce
the complexity of the measurement model and the mediation
model was assessed using a nested-models approach, in which a
series of chi-square difference tests assessed model fit.
3. Results
Descriptive statistics, correlations and reliabilities are presented
in Table 2, while Table 3 presents the results for the nested models
comparison. Model 1 included both indirect and direct pathways
between the big five and the outcome variables, but the paths be-
tween surface and deep acting and the outcomes were constrained
to zero. Although Model 1 was a more acceptable fit to the data
than the null model (v2 = 354.8, p < .01), the ratio of the chi-square
statistic to degrees of freedom is marginally above the accepted le-
vel of 3.0 (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). Model 2, labeled
the ‘full model without constraints’, tested the mediation model
allowing all paths to vary. While the chi-square statistic was signif-
icant (v2 = 252.6, p < .01) the ratio of the chi-square statistic to
degrees of freedom is well below the accepted level at 2.3. The
chi-square difference test and the fit indices suggests that Model
2 was a better fit to the data than Model 1 (Dv2 = 102.2
(Ddf = 5), p < .01) (Goffin, 2007; Hair et al., 2010). This model ex-
plained 14% of the variance in emotional exhaustion, 26% in OCBI
and 56% in OCBO.
Emotional stability (b = .24) remained a significant predictor
of surface acting in the mediation model shown in Fig. 1, support-
ing Hypothesis 1d. Emotional stability and deep acting (b = .38) ex-
plained 21% of the variance in surface acting. In addition,
emotional stability (b = .22) and surface acting (b = .24) were
both significant predictors of emotional exhaustion, although the
regression weight for emotional stability was attenuated, provid-
ing support for Hypothesis 3d that surface acting partially medi-
ates the emotional stability–emotional exhaustion relationship
(Baron & Kenny, 1986). No support was found for Hypothesis 4 that
suggested surface acting mediated the relationship between the
big five and OCBs.
Extraversion (b = .22) and agreeableness (b = .34) were positive
predictors of deep acting (r2 = 10%), supporting Hypotheses 2a and
2c respectively. Extraversion (b = .24) and agreeableness (b = .30)
were also significantly related to the OCBI dimension of OCB. How-
ever, the strength of these relationships was attenuated when deep
acting was added to the model. Extraversion was no longer signif-
icant (b = .15), while agreeableness remained a significant predic-
tor of OCBI (b = .18). These results provide support for deep
acting fully mediating the extraversion–OCBI relationship
(Hypothesis 5a) and partially mediating the agreeableness–OCBI
relationship (Hypothesis 5c). Only conscientiousness had a direct
effect on OCBO (b = .28) and thus, Hypothesis 5 was not supported
for this dimension.
4. Discussion
The present findings contribute to personality and emotional
labor research by conceptualizing and empirically testing a
46 S.A. Kiffin-Petersen et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 50 (2011) 43–48

Table 1
Fitted one-factor congeneric models.

Variable x2 df p CFI TLI GFI (AGFI) RMSEA (P-close)

Extraversion 0.79 1 .38 1.00 1.00 .99 (.99) .00 (.66)
Agreeableness 1.41 1 .24 .99 .99 .99 (.99) .03 (.53)
Conscientiousness 0.04 2 .98 1.00 1.00 1.00 (1.00) .00 (.99)
Emotional stability 6.80 2 .03 .99 .98 .99 (.97) .06 (.28)
Deep acting 1.32 1 .25 .99 .99 .99 (.99) .03 (.55)
Surface acting 4.52 2 .11 .99 .99 .99 (.98) .05 (.46)
OCBI 2.02 2 .36 1.00 1.00 .99 (.99) .01 (.75)
OCBO 3.87 1 .05 .99 .98 .99 (.98) .07 (.24)
Emotional exhaustion 0.09 1 .76 1.00 1.00 1.00 (.99) .00 (.89)

Note: x2 = Chi-square statistic; df = degrees of freedom; p = probability value; CFI = Comparative Fit Index; TLI = Tucker Lewis Index; GFI = Goodness of Fit Index;
AGFI = Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index; RMSEA = Root Mean Square Error of Approximation and P-close = probability the RMSEA is close to zero.

Table 2
Means, standard deviations, and correlations among variables.

Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. Extraversion 6.48 1.70 (.72)
2. Agreeableness 6.82 1.50 .00 (.81)
3. Conscientiousness 6.73 1.50 .06 .54** (.80)
4. Emotional stability 6.22 1.60 .39** .07 .07 (.80)
5. Deep acting 3.42 0.86 .13** .19** .08* .03 (.79)
6. Surface acting 2.97 0.96 .05 .11** .08 .22** .25** (.90)
7. OCBI 4.15 0.66 .18** .25** .16** .13** .35** .02 (.83)
8. OCBO 4.29 0.60 .17** .17** .21** .14** .29** .05 .47** (.69)
9. Emotional exhaustion 2.75 1.60 .14** .00 .05 .25** .02 .28** .02 .02 (.91)

Note: N = 625. Cronbach alphas are listed on the diagonal in parentheses.

*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.

Table 3
Nested models comparison.

Model x2 df x2/df Dx 2 Ddf CFI TLI GFI (AGFI) RMSEA (P-close)

Null 4681.6 153 30.6 – – .00 .00 .53 (.47) .29 (.00)
Model 1: full model with constraints 354.8** 114 3.1 4326.7** 39 .95 .93 .94 (.91) .06 (.02)
Model 2: full model without constraints 252.6** 109 2.3 102.1** 5 .97 .96 .96 (.93) .05 (.80)

Note: x2 = Chi-square statistic; df = degrees of freedom; x2/df = ratio of chi-square statistic to degrees of freedom; Dx2 = change in chi-square statistic; Ddf = change in degrees
of freedom; CFI = Comparative Fit Index; TLI = Tucker Lewis Index; GFI = Goodness of Fit Index; AGFI = Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index; RMSEA = Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation and P-close = probability the RMSEA is close to zero.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.

mediating role for surface and deep acting in the relationship be-
tween the big five, emotional exhaustion and OCBs. Surface acting
partially mediated the relationship between emotional stability
and emotional exhaustion, but was unrelated to OCBs. Deep acting
was positively related to OCBI and OCBO, but unrelated to emo-
tional exhaustion. Although this finding is consistent with Halbe-
sleben and Bowler’s (2007) assertion that employees may
perform OCBs for social support, the absence of a relationship for
surface acting suggests it may be due to individual differences.
Employees who deep acted were also those who were more likely
to perform discretionary behaviors.
Our results are supportive of conservation of resources theory
as surface acting was unrelated to OCBI and negatively related to
OCBO. The effects of emotional labor may depend on the relative
balance of surface and deep acting (Martínez-Inigo et al., 2007).
Here, deep acting was associated with performing OCBs that may
provide a means of social support, potentially buffering the nega-
tive effects of surface acting. The personality profile of the ‘success-
ful emotional labor employee’ in service settings (Ashkanasy et al.,
2002, p. 322) may be a person high in extraversion, agreeableness
and emotional stability. Emotionally unstable employees were
more likely to use surface acting to manage their emotional labor,
while extraverts and highly agreeable employees reported more
deep acting. Contrary to expectations, conscientiousness was not
significantly related to surface or deep acting. It was, however, sig-
nificantly correlated with OCBO. Our results support the usefulness
of differentiating between the individual and organizational
dimensions of OCB (Ilies et al., 2009).
The practical implications of this study fall into two areas. First,
employers should consider selecting employees who are high in
extraversion, emotional stability and agreeableness to improve
performance in customer service jobs. Given the importance of
selecting conscientious employees for overall job performance
(Barrick & Mount, 2005; Ozer & Benet-Martínez, 2005), our find-
ings also suggest this may increase the performance of OCBOs.
However, in some customer service jobs, the roles of the employee
are so tightly scripted there is little room for personality to affect
their customer interactions (Barrick & Mount, 1991). If employers
focus on the suggested selection practices, they also need to allow
employees greater autonomy in how they manage the emotional
 S.A. Kiffin-Petersen et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 50 (2011) 43–48
demands involved in interacting with their customers (Johnson &
Spector, 2007). Work re-design at the job level could help to im-
prove performance directly as well as indirectly, through increased
citizenship behaviors and reduced exhaustion.
A second practical implication of this study is that proactively
managing emotional labor may require training ‘at risk’ employees
in how to deep act. Grandey (2000) suggested attentional deploy-
ment and cognitive change are two ways a person may deep act.
Attentional deployment involves thinking about something that
induces the required emotion, while, with cognitive change, a per-
son reappraises a situation to change the emotion they are experi-
encing. Examples of cognitive change include positive self-talk,
distracting oneself by thinking about something else, or re-framing
a situation to be challenging rather than stressful (Totterdell &
Holman, 2003). Training programs that incorporate these cognitive
strategies, along with increased awareness of the possible adverse
health effects associated with surface acting, may help to reduce
service employees’ emotional exhaustion.
There are a number of limitations to this study that need to be
acknowledged. First, genuine expression, or when the individual’s
emotion matches the ‘required’ emotional display, is a third emo-
tional labor strategy (Diefendorff et al., 2005) that was not exam-
ined. Further research is needed into the relationship between
the big five personality factors, genuine expression and OCBs. Sec-
ond, self-report measures of personality and citizenship behaviors
were used, which may have over (Organ & Ryan, 1995) or underes-
timated the results (Organ, 1994). However, in this study there was
less reason for employees to engage in impression management
because they were drawn from a variety of organizations. Never-
theless, future research that uses co-workers’ ratings of personality
as ‘social reputation’ and supervisor ratings of citizenship behav-
iors would help to verify the present findings.
A promising avenue for future studies may be to explore po-
tential moderators of the relationship between deep acting and
citizenship behaviors. Johnson and Spector (2007) found gender
and autonomy were significant moderators of the relationship
between emotional labor, emotional exhaustion and job satisfac-
tion and this would be a useful starting point. The cross-sec-
tional design of this study also meant causality cannot be
determined. Longitudinal data is needed to see whether individ-
uals’ use of surface and deep acting changes over time with
greater work experience, and whether this is differentially re-
lated to outcomes (Brotheridge & Lee, 2002). A further limitation
of this study is that it focused on occupations in which employ-
ees were primarily required to express positive emotions (e.g.,
happiness) or suppress negative emotions (e.g., anger) during
interactions. It is possible the big five personality factors may
not influence surface and deep acting to the same degree if
the expression of negative emotions such as anger is required,
as with bill collectors (Hochschild, 1983). However, since it is
the suppression of negative emotions that is required in most
occupations, we do not consider this a significant limitation.
The findings make a contribution to understanding individual
differences in emotional labor by simultaneously testing the influ-
ence of the big five on the emotion regulation strategies of surface
and deep acting, and important individual and organizational out-
comes. The large, diverse sample was drawn from occupations that
Hochschild (1983) identified as being high in emotional labor, add-
ing to the generalizability of the findings. The findings are signifi-
cant in that employees who deep acted were also those who
were more likely to engage in citizenship behaviors that benefited
other employees and the organization. Employees who used sur-
face acting also reported being more emotionally exhausted. Extra-
version, agreeableness and emotional stability were significantly
related to whether employees engaged in surface and deep acting,
and this was a critical factor in emotional labor being associated
47
with positive or negative consequences for the individual and the
organization.
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