Vibration Chapter 01-Ver1

C. R. Yang, NTNU MT C. R.
Yang, NTNU MT
Chapter 1
Learning Objectives
Fundamentals of Vibration
 Describe briefly the history of vibration
 Indicate the importance of study of vibration
1
 Give various classifications of vibration
 State the steps involved in vibration analysis
 Compute the value of spring constants, masses, and damping
constants
 Define harmonic motion and different possible representations of
harmonic motion
 Add and subtract harmonic motions
 Conduct Fourier series expansion of given periodic functions
 Determine Fourier coefficients numerically using the MATLAB
program
台灣師範大學機電科技學系 -1- 台灣師範大學機電科技學系 -2-
C. R. Yang, NTNU MT C. R. Yang, NTNU MT
Chapter Outline 1.1

Preliminary remarks
1.1 Preliminary Remarks
1.2 Brief History of Vibration
1.3 Importance of the Study of Vibration
1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration
1.5 Classification of Vibration
1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure
1.1
1.7 Spring Elements
1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements
1.9 Damping Elements
1.10 Harmonic Motion
1.11 Harmonic Analysis

1.1 Preliminary Remarks 1.2

Brief History of Vibration
• Brief history of vibration

• Examination of vibration’s important role
• Vibration analysis of an engineering system
• Definitions and concepts of vibration
1.2
 All
mechanical and structural systems can be modeled as mass-
spring-damper systems, like an automobile
 Insome cases, the mass, spring, and damper do not appear as
separate components; they are inherent and integral to the system,
like the airplane wing
• Concept of harmonic analysis for general periodic motions
1.2 Brief History of Vibration 1.2 Brief History of Vibration
Origins of vibration: Around 350 B.C. –

582-507 B.C. – Aristotle wrote treatises (論文) on music and sound
Pythagoras, the Greek philosopher and mathematician, is In 320 B.C. –
the first to investigate musical sounds on a scientific basis. He Aristoxenus wrote a three-volume work entitled
conducted experiments on a vibrating string by using a simple Elements of Harmony
apparatus called a monochord. He further developed the
In 300 B.C. –
concept of pitch.
Euclid wrote a treatises Introduction to Harmonics
A.D. 132 –
Zhang Heng invented the world’s
first seismograph(地震計) to measure
earthquakes
Pythagora, Monochord
Greek
philosopher
Galileo to Rayleigh:
Joseph Sauveur (1653 – 1716)
Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642)
- founder of modern experimental science - coined the word “acoustics” for the science of
- started experimenting on simple pendulum sound
- published a book, Discourses (談論、演講) Concerning
- founded nodes, loops, harmonics and the
Two New Sciences, in 1638, describing
resonance, frequency, length, tension and fundamental frequency
density of a vibrating stretched string - calculated the frequency of a stretched string
from the measured sag (下垂) of its middle point
Robert Hooke (1635 – 1703)
- found relation between pitch and frequency of Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
vibration of a string
- published his monumental(巨大的) work, Philosophiae (哲學的)
Natural is Principia(原理) Mathematica, in 1686,
discovering three laws of motion

Joseph Lagrange (1736 – 1813) Recent contributions:

- found the analytical solution of the vibrating
string and the wave equation 1902 – Frahm investigated the importance of
torsional vibration study in the design of
Simeon Poisson (1781 – 1840) propeller shafts of steamships
- solved the problem of vibration of a
rectangular flexible membrane Aurel Stodola (1859 – 1943)
- contributed to the study of vibration of beams,
R.F.A. Clebsch (1833 – 1872) plates, and membranes.
- studied the vibration of a circular membrane - developed a method for analyzing vibrating
beams which is applicable to turbine blades
Lord Baron Rayleigh
- founded Rayleigh-Ritz method, used to find C.G.P. De Laval (1845 – 1913)
frequency of vibration of a conservative - presented a practical solution to the problem
system and multiple natural frequencies of vibration of an unbalanced rotating disk

Recent contributions:
1950s – developed finite element method enabled
1892 – Lyapunov laid (奠定) the foundations of modern
engineers to conduct numerically detailed
stability theory which is applicable to all
vibration analysis of complex mechanical,
types of dynamical systems
vehicular, and structural systems
1920 – Duffling and Van der Pol brought the first displaying thousands of degrees of
definite solutions into the theory of freedom with the aid of computers
nonlinear vibrations and drew attention to
its importance in engineering • Turner, Clough, Martin and Topp presented the finite
– Introduction of the correlation function by element method as known today
Taylor
1950 – advent (來臨) of high-speed digital computers

– generate approximate solutions
1.2 Brief History of Vibration 1.3

Importance of the Study of Vibration
Finite element idealization (理想化) of the body of a bus
台灣師範大學機電科技學系 -15-
1.3 台灣師範大學機電科技學系 -16-
1.3 Importance of the Study of Vibration
• Why study vibration?
• Vibrations can lead to excessive deflections and failure on

the machines and structures
• To reduce vibration through proper design of machines and

their mountings
Tacoma narrow bridge Vibration test of the space shuttle
• To utilize profitably in several consumer and industrial
applications, like washing machine, electric toothbrushes
• To improve the efficiency of certain machining, casting,

forging & welding processes
• To stimulate earthquakes for geological research and

conduct studies in design of nuclear reactors
Vibratory finishing process

1.4 1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration

Basic Concepts of Vibration
• Vibration = any motion that repeats itself after an interval of

time
• Vibratory System consists of:
1. spring or elasticity: store potential energy
1.4
2. mass or inertia: store kinetic energy
3. Damper: energy is gradually lost
• Involves transfer of potential energy to kinetic
energy and vice versa

1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration

Position 1 & 3:
• Degree of Freedom (d.o.f.) =
Kinetic energy is zero
Potential energy is The minimum number of independent coordinates required
mgl(1-cos) to determine completely the positions of all parts of a
Torque :
system at any instant of time
Position 2:
mgl sin  • Examples of single degree-of-freedom systems:
Potential energy is zero, and it
has been converted into kinetic
energy
Note:
A simple pendulum The variations of velocity,
single degree-of-freedom system acceleration, and deceleration
as positions 1, 2, 3 changed
independent coordinates
  x  l sin  , y  l cos  The air acts as the damper
or
x , y but x 2  y 2  l 2
1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration 1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration
• Examples of three degree-of-freedom systems:

• Examples of second degree-of-freedom systems:
 and X
 i ( i  1, 2, 3)
or
or xi , yi ( i  1, 2, 3)
x , y (but x 2  y 2  l 2 ) and X
(but xi 2  yi 2  li 2 )
1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration 1.5

Classification of Vibration
• Example of Infinite-number-of-degrees-of-freedom system:
We need an infinite number
1.5
of coordinates to specify its
deflected configuration
• Infinite number of degrees of freedom system are termed

continuous or distributed systems
• Finite number of degrees of freedom are termed discrete or lumped

parameter systems
• More accurate results obtained by increasing number of degrees of

freedom
1.5 Classification of Vibration 1.5 Classification of Vibration
• Free Vibration: • Undamped Vibration:

A system is left to vibrate on its own after an initial When no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other
disturbance and no external force acts on the system. E.g. resistance during oscillations
simple pendulum
• Damped Vibration:
• Forced Vibration:
When any energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other
A system that is subjected to a repeating external force. E.g.
resistance during oscillations
oscillation arises from diesel engines
• Resonance occurs when the frequency of the external force

• Linear Vibration:
coincides (吻合) with one of the natural frequencies of the
When all basic components of a vibratory system, i.e. the
system
spring, the mass and the damper behave linearly

1.5 Classification of Vibration 1.5 Classification of Vibration
• Nonlinear Vibration:
• Examples of deterministic and random excitation:
If any of the components behave nonlinearly
• Deterministic (確定的) Vibration:

If the value or magnitude of the excitation (force or motion)
acting on a vibratory system is known at any given time
• Nondeterministic or random Vibration:

When the value of the excitation at a given time cannot be
predicted
1.6 1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure

Vibration Analysis Procedure
Step 1: Mathematical Modeling
Step 2
Step 2: Derivation of Governing Equations
Step 3: Solution of the Governing Equations
Step 4: Interpretation of the Results
1.6
Step 1

1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure
• Example of the modeling of a forging hammer:
(動力錘的頭部)
(鐵砧)
(泥土)
1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure 1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure
Example 1.1 Mathematical Model of a Motorcycle Example 1.1
Figure shows a motorcycle with a rider. Develop a sequence of three Mathematical Model of a Motorcycle
mathematical models of the system for investigating vibration in the Solution:
vertical direction. Consider the elasticity of the tires, elasticity and
damping of the struts (支撐) (in the vertical direction), masses of the
wheels, and elasticity, damping, and mass of the rider.

1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure 1.7

Spring Elements
Example 1.1
Mathematical Model of a Motorcycle
Note that the models
Solution: shown in Figure (b) to
(d) are not unique. For
example, by combining
the spring constants of
1.7
both tires, the masses of
both wheels, and the
spring and damping
constants of both struts
as single quantities, the
model shown in Figure
(e) can be obtained
instead of Figure (c).
1.7 Spring Elements 1.7 Spring Elements
• Linear spring is a type of mechanical link

that is generally assumed to have negligible • Work done (U) in deforming a spring
mass and damping is stored as strain or potential energy,
• Spring force is given by: given by:
1 2
F  kx U kx
2
F = spring force, • Nonlinear springs whose force-
k = spring stiffness or spring
deflection relations are given by
constant
x = deformation (displacement 向下為力的正方向 F  ax  bx 3 , a>0
of one end with respect to Nonlinear and linear spring
the other) Deformation of a spring

• Some systems, involving two or more springs, may exhibit a
nonlinear force-displacement relationship although the
individual springs are linear.
Although piecewise
linear, total denote a
nonlinear relation
Although piecewise linear, total denote a nonlinear relation
Nonlinear spring force-displacement relation Nonlinear spring force-displacement relation
• When an incremental force ΔF is added to F, the spring

deflects by an additional quality △x. The new spring force F+
△F can be expressed using Taylor’s series expansion about
the static equilibrium position x* as :
F   F  F ( x *  x )
dF 1 d 2F
 F ( x* )  ( x )  ( x )2  ...
dx x* 2! dx 2 x *
For small values of △x, the higher-order derivative terms

can be neglected to obtain
Nonlinearity beyond proportionality limit dF

F  F  F ( x*  x )  F ( x* )  ( x )
dx x*


dF
F  F  F ( x * )  ( x )
dx Example 1.3 Spring constant of a rod
x*
 F ( x * )  k ( x )
 Fl
 l  l l
l E AE
force applied
So k 
resulting deflection
F AE
K is the linearized  
spring constant at  l
x*
Spring constant of a rod
1.7 Spring Elements: 1.7 Spring Elements

Example 1.4 Spring constant of a cantilever beam
• Static deflection of a beam at the free end is given by:
Wl 3 • Combination of Springs:
 st 
3EI 1) Springs in parallel – if we have n spring constants k1,
W = mg is the weight of the mass m, k2, …, kn in parallel, then the equivalent spring constant keq
E = Young’s Modulus, and is:
I = moment of inertia of cross-section of beam keq  k1  k2  ...  kn
• Spring Constant is given by:
W 3EI Combination of Springs:

k  •
 st l3 2) Springs in series – if we have n spring constants k1, k2, …,
kn in series, then the equivalent spring constant keq is:
1 1 1 1
   ... 
keq k1 k2 kn

1.7 Spring Elements

1.7 Spring Elements
 st   1   2
W  k1 1 , W  k2 2 , W  keq st
k1 1  k2 2  keq st
W  keq st  k1 st  k2 st
keq st keq st
 ( k1  k2 ) st  1  and  2 
k1 k2
 keq  k1  k2
keq st keq st
 st  
k1 k2
Spring in parallel
1 1 1
  
Spring in series keq k1 k2

Helical spring under axial load Example 1.6
d=wire diameter 4 Torsional Spring Constant of a Propeller Shaft
d G
D=mean coil diameter
n=number of active turns
k  3
 keq  3k
G=shear modulus of coil material
8 D n
Parallel arrangement of springs in a freight truck

1.7 Spring Elements

Example 1.7 I of cross-section
Equivalent k of hoisting drum (鼓狀物)
板狀懸臂樑
x1=xcos(90-)
Example 1.8 Example 1.8
Equivalent k of a Crane (起重機) Equivalent k of a Crane x2=xcos(90-45)
x
The boom AB of crane is a uniform steel Solution:
bar of length 10 m and area of cross section A vertical displacement x of pt B will cause
2,500 mm2. A weight W is suspended while the spring k2 (boom) to deform by
the crane is stationary. Steel cable CDEBF x2 = x cos (90º –45º) and the spring k1 (cable)
has a cross-sectional area of 100 mm2. Neglect to deform by an amount x1 = x cos (90º – θ).
effect of cable CDEB, find equivalent spring Length of cable FB, l1 is as shown.
constant of system in the vertical direction.


Example 1.8
Equivalent k of a Crane
l12  32  102  2(3)(10)cos135  151.426 Example 1.8
Solution: l1  12.3055 m Equivalent k of a Crane
The angle θ satisfies the relation:
l12  32  2(l1)(3) cos   102 Solution
cos   0.8184,   35.0736 Potential Energy of the equivalent
The total potential energy (U):
By setting U = Ueq, hence:
1 1
U  k1[ x cos(90   )]2  k2 [ x cos(90  45)]2 spring is:
2 2
1 1 1
A1E1 (100  106 )( 207  109 ) U eq  keq x 2  k1[ x cos(90   )]2  k2 [ x cos(90  45)]2
k1    1.6822  106 N/m 2 2 2
l1 12.0355
A2 E2 (2500  106 )( 207  109 ) keq  k1 sin2   k2 sin2 45  26.4304  106 N / m
k2    5.1750  107 N/m
l2 10
1.8 1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements

Mass or Inertia Elements
• Using mathematical model to represent the actual vibrating system

The mass or inertia element is
assumed to be a rigid body; it  E.g. In the figure below, the mass and damping of the beam
can gain or lose kinetic energy can be disregarded; the system can thus be modeled as a
whenever the velocity of the spring-mass system as shown.
body changes.
1.8
Work is equal to the force
multiplied by the displacement
in the direction of the force,
and the work done on a mass is
stored in the form of the mass’s
kinetic energy.

1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements 1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements

In many practical applications, several masses appear in
combination. For a simple analysis, we can replace these masses
• Combination of Masses by a single equivalent mass.
 E.g. Assume that the mass of
the frame is negligible • Case 1: Translational Masses Connected by a Rigid Bar
compared to the masses of
(To be assumed)
the floors. The masses of
various floor levels represent
the mass elements, and the
elasticities of the vertical
members denote the spring
elements.
Vtangent  R  x  l
Idealization of a multistory
building as a multi-degree- So  
x1 x2 x3
 
freedom system l1 l2 l3
• Case 1: Translational Masses Connected by a Rigid Bar

• Case 2: Translational and Rotational Masses Coupled Together
Velocities of masses can be expressed as:
l2 By equating the kinetic energy of the system:

x2  x1
l1
and xeq  x1
l3
x3  x1 meq = single equivalent translational mass
l1
x = translational velocity
By equating the kinetic energy of the system:  = rotational velocity
J0 = mass moment of inertia
1 1 1 1
m1 x12  m2 x22  m3 x32  meq xeq2 Jeq = single equivalent rotational mass
2 2 2 2
2 2
l  l 
meq  m1   2  m2   3  m3
 1
l  l1 
• Case 2: Translational and Rotational Masses Coupled Together • Case 2: Translational and Rotational Masses Coupled Together
1. Equivalent translational mass: 2. Equivalent rotational mass:

Kinetic energy of the two masses is given by: Here, eq   and x   R , equating Teq and T gives
1 1
T  mx 2  J 02
2 2 1 1
 1
2
J eq 2  m  R  J 0 2 or J eq  J 0  mR2
Kinetic energy of the equivalent mass is given by: 2 2 2
1
Teq  meq xeq
2
2
x
Since   and xeq  x , equating Teq & T gives
R
J0
meq  m 
R2

Example 1.11
Equivalent Mass of a System
Example 1.11
Find the equivalent mass of the system as shown, where the rigid link
Equivalent Mass of a System
1 is attached to the pulley and rotates with it.
Solution
Assuming small displacements, the equivalent mass (meq) can be
determined using the equivalence of the kinetic energies of the two
移動
轉動 systems. When the mass m is displaced by a distance x , the pulley
and the rigid link 1 rotate by an angle  p  1  x / rp. This causes the
rigid link 2 and the cylinder to be displaced by a distance
擺動
x2   p l1  xl1 / rp. Since the cylinder rolls without slippage, it rotates by
an angle c  x2 / rc  xl1 / rp r.c The kinetic energy of the system (T) can
移動 be expressed (for small displacements) as:
轉動＋移動

 p  1  x / rp
Example 1.11 Example 1.11 x2   p l1  xl1 / rp
Equivalent Mass of a System Equivalent Mass of a System c  x2 / rc  xl1 / rp rc
轉動＋移動
Solution Solution
1 1 1 1 1 1 Noting that J c  mc rc2 / 2 and J  m l 2 / 3 , Equation (E.1) can be rewritten
T  mx 2  J p p2  J112  m2 x22  J cc2  mc x22 (E.1) 1 11
2 2 2 2 2 2 as
where Jp, J1, and Jc denote the mass moments of inertia of the pulley,
link 1 (about O), and cylinder, respectively,  ,  and  indicate the
1 1 1 1 1 1
p 1 c T mx 2  J p p2  J112  m2 x22  J cc2  mc x22 (E.1)
angular velocities of the pulley, link 1 (about O), and cylinder, 2 2 2 2 2 2
respectively, and x and x represent the linear velocities of the mass m
2
2 2 2 2 2
and link 2, respectively. 1 2 1  x  1  m1l12  x  1  xl1  1  mc rc2  xl1  1  xl1 
T mx  J p     m2     mc ( E.2 )
2 2  rp  2  3  rp  2  rp  2  2  rp rc  2  rp 

Example 1.12
Example 1.11
Cam-Follower Mechanism
Equivalent Mass of a System A cam-follower mechanism is used
Solution to convert the rotary motion of a
shaft into the oscillating or
By equating Equation (E.2) to the kinetic energy of the equivalent reciprocating motion of a valve.
system The follower system consists of a
pushrod of mass mp, a rocker arm
1 of mass mr, and mass moment of
T  m x eq
2
(E.3) inertia Jr about its center of
2 gravity (C.G.), a valve of mass mv,
and a valve spring of negligible
We obtain the equivalent mass of the system as mass. Find the equivalent mass as x  x p occurred ,
(meq) of this cam-follower system
1 m1l12 m2 l12 1 mc l12
Jp l2 by assuming the location of meq as xl2
meq  m  2   2   mc 12 (E.4) r  x , xv   r l 2 
2 2 (i) point A and (ii) point C. l1 l1
rp 3 rp rp 2 rp rp
xl3
x r   r l3  ( the CG of the roc ker)
l1
1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements 1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements (Displacement)

as x  x p occurred ,
xl2
Example 1.12 Example 1.12 r  x , xv   r l 2 
l1 l1
Cam-Follower Mechanism Cam-Follower Mechanism xl3
l1
Solution Solution
The kinetic energy of the system (T) is: 轉動＋移動(質心) By equating T and Teq, and note that
xl2 xl x
1 1 1 1
T  m p x 2p  mv xv2  J rr2  mr xr2 E.1 x p  x, xv  , xr  3 , and r  (Velocity)
2 2 2 2 l1 l1 l1
l2 l2
eq
If meq denotes equivalent mass placed at pt A, with x  x, the kinetic Jr
meq  m p   mv 22  mr 32  E.3
l12 l1 l1
energy equivalent mass system Teq is:
Similarly, if equivalent mass is located at point C, xeq  xv , hence,
1
Teq  meq xeq
2
E.2 1
Teq  meq xeq
2 1
 meq xv2 E.4
2 2 2
1.8 Mass or Inertia Elements as x  x p occurred , 1.9

r  x ,
l1
xv   r l2  xl2
l1 Damping Elements
xl3
l1
Example 1.12 Cam-Follower Mechanism 
Solution
xv l1
xp 
l2
Equating (E.4) and (E.1) gives  r  xv

l2
xv l3
x r   r l3 
1.9
l2
1 1 1 1
T  m p x 2p  mv xv2  J rr2  mr xr2 E.1
2 2 2 2
1 1
Teq  meq xeq
2
 meq xv2 E.4
2 2
2 2
Jr l  l 
meq  mv   m p  1   mr  3   E.5
l22  2
l  l2 
1.9 Damping Elements 1.9 Damping Elements

The mechanism by which the vibrational energy is gradually converted • Material or Solid or Hysteretic (遲滯) Damping:
into heat or sound is known as damping. A damper is assumed to Energy is absorbed or dissipated by material during deformation
have neither mass nor elasticity, and damping force exits only if there due to friction between internal planes, which slip or slide as the
is relative velocity between the two ends of the damper. deformations take place. When a body having material damping is
subjected to vibration, the stress-strain diagram shows a hysteresis
• Viscous Damping: loop. The area of this loop denotes the energy lost per unit volume
Damping force is proportional to the velocity of the vibrating body of the body per cycle due to damping.
Energy lost
in a fluid medium such as air, water, gas, and oil. The resistance
offered by the fluid to the moving body causes energy to be
dissipated. Typical cases:(1) fluid film between sliding surfaces, (2)
fluid flow around a piston in a cylinder, (3) fluid flow through an (Work done)
orifice, and (4) fluid film around a journal in a bearing
(Energy recovery)
• Coulomb or Dry Friction Damping:

Damping force is constant in magnitude but opposite in direction to
that of the motion of the vibrating body between dry surfaces (or
have insufficient lubrication)
Example 1.13
Damping Constant of Parallel • Shear Stress ( ) developed in the fluid layer at a distance y from
Plates Separated by Viscous Fluid
the fixed plate is:
du
液體厚度y時的流速   (Newton’s law of viscous flow)
dy
where du/dy = v/h is the velocity gradient.
• Shear or Resisting Force (F) developed at the bottom surface of the

moving plate is:
Viscosity 
Av
F  A    cv
h
A
where A is the surface area of the moving plate and c  is the
Parallel plates with a viscous fluid in between h
damping constant


Example 1.15
Damping Constant of Example 1.15 Damping Constant of a Journal Bearing
a Journal Bearing
Assuming a linear variation for the velocity of the fluid in the radial direction
vr rR
v(r )  
d d dv  R
The shear stress in the lubricant is   
dr d
 R 2 R3l
The torque on the shaft is T  FR  ( A) R  ( )( 2 Rl ) R 
d d
(Petroff’s law used in the design of journal bearings)
(To see the Mechanical Design for learning more )
From the definition of the rotational damping constant of the bearing
T 2 R3l
ct  
 d
Example 1.16 Poston-Cylinder Dashpot (阻尼器) Example 1.16 Piston-Cylinder Dashpot

Solution
The damping constant of the dashpot can be determined using the shear
stress equation for viscous fluid flow and the rate of fluid flow equation.
As shown in Figure (a), the dashpot consists of a piston diameter D and
length l, moving with velocity v0 in a cylinder filled with a liquid of
viscosity µ . Let the clearance between the piston and the cylinder wall
be d. At a distance y from the moving surface, let the velocity and shear
stress be v and τ, and at a distance (y + dy) let the velocity and shear
stress be (v – dv) and (τ + dτ), respectively (see Figure b).

Example 1.16
Example 1.16 Piston-Cylinder Dashpot Piston-Cylinder Dashpot
Solution Solution
The negative sign for dv shows that the velocity decreases as we move
toward the cylinder wall. The viscous force on this annular ring is equal
to Using Eq. (E.2) in Eq. (E.1), we obtain
d
F  A   Dld   Dl dy (E.1) dv 2
dy F  Dldy (E.3)
dy 2
But the shear stress is given by

The force on the piston will cause a pressure difference on the ends of
dv the element, given by
   (E.2)
dy
P( force ) 4P
where the negative sign is consistent with a decreasing velocity gradient p( pressure )   (E.4)
  D2   D2
 
-85-
 4  -86-
台灣師範大學機電科技學系台灣師範大學機電科技學系
Example 1.16 Piston-Cylinder Dashpot Example 1.16

Solution Piston-Cylinder Dashpot
Thus the pressure force on the end of the element is Solution
4P
pDdy   4P dv 2
dy (E.5) Thus we get dy  Dldy or d 2v


4P
(E.6)
D D dy 2
dy 2  D2l 
where  Ddy  denotes the annular area between y and (y + dy). If we Integrating this equation twice and using the boundary conditions
assume uniform mean velocity in the direction of motion of the fluid, the v=-v0 at y = 0 and v = 0 at y = d, we obtain
forces given in Eqs. (E.3) and (E.5) must be equal.
v
2P
 yd  y   v 1  y 
2
(E.7)
D l 2 0
 d

The rate of flow through the clearance space can be obtained by

integrating the rate of flow through an element between the limits y=0
Example 1.16 Piston-Cylinder Dashpot
and y=d:
Solution
d 2 Pd 3 1
Q v Ddy   D[  v0 d ] ( E .8)   2d  
6 D 2 l  2  3D l 1  D  
3
0
Equations (E.8) and (E.9) lead to P    v 0
(E.10)
 4d 
3
The volume of the liquid flowing through the clearance space per second  
must be equal to the volume per second displaced by the piston. Hence By writing the force as P = cv0, the damping constant c can be found as
the velocity of the piston will be equal to this rate of flow divided by the
piston area. This gives
Q  D2  3 D3l  2d  
v0  (E.9)  Q  c 3 
1 
D  
v0 代入( E .8)求P (E.11)
 2 4  4d 
4D 
 
• If a damper is nonlinear for the force (F)-velocity (v) relationship, Example 1.17
F=F(v), a linearization process is used about the operating velocity
Equivalent Spring and Damping Constants of a Machine Tool
(v*) and the equivalent damping constant is:
Support
dF
c
dv v*
• Combination of dampers:
Parallel dampers : ceq  c1  c2

1 1 1
Series dampers :  
ceq c1 c2
K is the linearized
spring constant at x*

The total forces acting on all the springs and all the dampers
F F F F F
s s1 s2 s3 s4
F F F F F
d d1 d2 d3 d4
(E.2)
Fs  Fd  W , where W denoting the total vertical force acting

on the milling machine
F k x
s eq
F  c x
d eq
(E.3)
The forces acting on the springs and dampers
k  k  k  k  k  4k
Fsi  ki x; i  1, 2, 3, 4
eq 1 2 3 4
c  c  c  c  c  4c (E.4)
Fdi  ci x; i  1, 2, 3, 4
eq 1 2 3 4
(E.1)
where ki = k and ci = c for i = 1, 2, 3, 4.
1.10 1.10 Harmonic Motion

Harmonic Motion
• Periodic Motion: motion repeated after equal

intervals of time
• Harmonic Motion: simplest type of periodic motion
• Displacement (x) (on horizontal axis): From Scotch yoke
1.10
mechanism
x  Asin   Asin t
• Velocity: dx
  A cos t
dt
• Acceleration:
d 2x
  2 A sin t   2 x
dt 2

1.10 Harmonic Motion 1.10 Harmonic Motion

• Scotch yoke mechanism:
The projection of the tip 簡諧運動可由在圓周上等速
of the vector on the X  OP 運動的質點P於y(或x)軸上
The similarity between cyclic vertical axis is given by 的投影表示
(harmonic) and sinusoidal motion.
y  A sin t
Harmonic motion can be represented
conveniently by means of a vector OP ,and its projection on the
of magnitude A rotating at a constant horizontal axis by
angular velocity 
x  A cos t
Harmonic motion as the projection of the end of a rotating vector


• Operations on Harmonic Functions as X  Ae i t :
• Also, it can be expressed as • We have Displacement  Re[ Aeit ]  A cos t


X  A cos   iA sin  X  a  ib  A cos   iA sin  Velocity  Re[iAeit ]  Asin t  A cost  90

X  Acos   i sin    Ae i A  (a 2  b 2 )1/ 2 Accelerati on  Re[  2 Ae it ]   2 A cos t
  tan 1
b   2 A cost  180
• Thus, if a where Re denotes the real part. The acceleration vector leads the
z1  a1  ib1  A1e i1 velocity vector by 90o, and the latter leads the displacement vector
z2  a2  ib2  A2e i2 by 90o
Aj  (a 2j  b2j ) ; j  1, 2 • For the rotating vector
 bj  dX d2X
 j  tan1  ; j  1, 2 X  Ae it ;  i Ae it  i X ;   2 Ae it   2 X
 dt dt 2
 aj 

Example 1.18 Addition of Harmonic Motions
Find the sum of the two harmonic motions. x1 (t )  10 cos t; x2 (t )  15 cos(t  2)
Method 1: By using trigonometric relations: Since the circular frequency
is the same for both x1(t) and x2(t), we express the sum as
x(t )  A cos(t   )  x (t )  x (t ) 1 2
(E.1)
Displacement, velocity, and accelerations as rotating vectors
Acos t cos  sin t sin    10 cos t  15 cos(t  2)
Re( X 1 )  A1 cos  t ; Re( X 2 )  A2 cos( t   )  10 cos t  15(cos t cos 2  sin t sin 2) (E.2)
The magnitude of the resulant vector X is cos t ( A cos  )  sin t ( A sin  )  cos t (10  15 cos 2)  sin t (15 sin 2) (E.3)
A  ( A1  A2 cos  )2  ( A2 sin  )2
A1 and the angle  by A cos   10  15 cos 2
A2 sin  A sin   15 sin 2  15 sin 2 
  tan 1 ( )   tan 1    74.5963
A1  A2 cos 
A 10  15 cos 22  (15 sin 2)2  10  15 cos 2 
Vectorial addition of harmonic functions  14.1477

Example 1.18 Addition of Harmonic Motions Example 1.18 Addition of Harmonic Motions
Solution
Solution
Method 3: By using complex number representation: the two harmonic motions can be
Method 2: By using vectors: For an arbitrary value of ωt, the harmonic denoted in terms of complex numbers:
X  a  ib  A cos   iA sin 
motions x1(t) and x2(t) can be denoted graphically as shown in Figure. The sum of x1(t) and x2(t) can be expressed as
A  (a 2  b 2 )1/ 2
By adding them vectorially, the resultant vector x(t) can be found to be b
 
x1 (t )  Re A1e it  Re 10e it     tan 1
a
z1  a1  ib1  A1e i1
x(t )  14.1477 cos(t  74.5963) (E.6) x (t )  Re A e i ( t  2 )
  Re15e 
i ( t  2 )
(E.7)
z2  a2  ib2  A2e i2
2 2
Re( X 1 )  A1 cos  t ; Re( X 2 )  A2 cos( t   ) x(t )  Re  Ae i (t  )

 (E.8) Aj  (a 2j  b2j ); j  1, 2
The magnitude of the resulant vector X is
where A and α can be determined using Eqs. (1.47) b 
 j  tan 1  j  ; j  1, 2
A  ( A1  A2 cos  )2  ( A2 sin  )2
 aj 
and (1.48) as A = 14.1477 and α = 74.5963º
and the angle  by i1
z1  z2  A1e  A2e i2
A2 sin 
  tan 1 ( )  (a1  a2 )  i (b1  b2 )
A1  A2 cos 
徑度角 2=114.6o
2π=360o

• Definitions of Terminology:
Natural frequency is the frequency which a system oscillates
• Definitions of Terminology: without external forces
Amplitude (A) is the maximum displacement of a vibrating body Phase angle () is the angular difference between two synchronous
from its equilibrium position harmonic motions
Period of oscillation (T) is time taken to complete one cycle of x1  A1 sin t

motion
2 x2  A2 sint   
T

Frequency of oscillation (f) is the no. of cycles per unit time
Octave (八度音) is the maximum value of a range of frequency which
1  is twice its minimum value, it is known as an octave band, like 75-
f      2 f 150 Hz
T 2
1.10 Harmonic Motion Beats (拍): When two harmonic motions, with frequencies close to one
another, are added, the resulting motion exhibits a phenomenon known as
• Definitions of Terminology: beats
Whenever the amplitude
Decibel (分貝) is originally defined as a ratio of electric powers. It is now
x1 ( t )  X cos  t ; x2 ( t )  X cos(   )t reaches a maximum, it is
called a beat.  is known as
often used as a notation of various quantities such as displacement, where  is a small quantity
velocity, acceleration, pressure, and power encountered in the field of beat frequency. The beating
vibration and sound x( t )  x1 ( t )  x2 ( t )  X [cos  t  cos(   )t ] phenomenon occurs when the
P forcing frequency is close to
dB  10 log   t 
 2 X cos cos(  )t the natural frequency of the
 P0  2 2 system
where P0 is some reference value of power A varying amplitude approximately equal to 
Since electric power is proportional to the square of the voltage (X), the
decibel can also be expressed as
2
 X   X 
dB  10 log    20 log  
 X0   X0 
where X0 is specified reference voltage.

1.11
Harmonic Analysis
1.11
拍音

• A periodic function:
• Fourier Series Expansion:
In many cases the vibrations are periodic, and any periodic function
If x(t) is a periodic function with period
by
 , its Fourier Series representation is given can be represented as a sum of harmonic functions (as an infinite
sum of sine and cosine terms). The harmonic motion is simplest to
2  handle.
x (t ) 
a0
 a1 cos t  a2 cos 2t  ...
a0 
 
0
x ( t )dt
2 
2
b1 sin t  b2 sin 2t  ... an 
  0
x ( t )cos n tdt

a
 0   (an cos nt  bn sin nt ) 2 
2 n 1 bn 
 
0
x ( t )sin n tdt
(The Fourier series can also be represented by the sum of sine terms only
or cosine terms only, like from Eq. (1.74) to Eq.(1.77))
 Any periodic function can be represented as a sum of harmonic functions (as an
infinite sum of sine and cosine terms)

1.11 Harmonic Analysis 1.11 Harmonic Analysis

• Complex Fourier Series:
• Gibbs Phenomenon:
The Fourier series of Eq. (1.70) can also be represented in terms of
complex numbers.
As n increases, the approximation can be seen to improve a 
e in t  e  int e int  e  int
x ( t )  0   {a n ( )  bn ( )}
everywhere except in the vicinity of the discontinuity, P. The error 2 n 1 2 2i
in amplitude remains at approximately 9 percent, even when k   a0 ib0 i ( 0 )t  an ibn int an ibn  int
eit  cos t  i sin t (  )e   {(  )e  (  )e }
2 2 n 1 2 2 2 2
e it  cos t  i sin t 
Here the deviation from  c0 e i ( 0 ) t   {cn e int  c n e  int }

it  it
the true waveform e e n 1
cos t  
becomes narrower but
not any smaller in
2  ce n
in t
eit  e it n 

amplitude sin t 
2i where
b0  0
1 
cn 
 
0
x ( t )e  in t dt

• The Fourier series expansion permits the description of any periodic
• Frequency Spectrum or spectral diagram
function using either a time-domain or a frequency-domain
The harmonic functions ancosnt or bnsinnt in Eq.(1,70) are called the harmonics of
order n of the periodic function x(t). The harmonic of order n has a period /n. representation
Harmonics plotted as vertical lines on a diagram of amplitude (an and bn or dn and
Φn) versus frequency (nω)
a0
x( t )   a1 cos  t  a2 cos 2 t  ...
2
 b1 sin  t  b2 sin 2 t  ...
 d 0  d1 cos( t  1 )  d 2 cos(2 t  2 )  ...
where
a0
d0 
2
d n  (an  bn )1/ 2
2 2
bn
n  tan 1 ( )
an
-115-
Representation of a function in time and frequency domain -116-
1.11 Harmonic Analysis The shifting of the 1.11 Harmonic Analysis

vertical axis will make
A shift in the time axis it an odd or even
amounts to adding a function
constant equal to the
amount of shift
• Even and odd functions: • Half-Range Expansions:
Even function & its Fourier series expansion The function is extended to include the interval   to 0 as shown in
the figure. The Fourier series expansions of x1(t) and x2(t) are
x(t )  x(t ) (1.87)
known as half-range expansions.
a
x(t )    a cos nt

0
n
(1.88)
2 n 1
Odd function & its Fourier series expansion
x(t )   x(t ) (1.89)

x(t )   b sin nt

n 1 n
(1.90)
-117- 118 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units -118-


• Numerical Computation of Coefficients
If x(t) is not in a simple form, experimental determination of the Example 1.19

amplitude of vibration and numerical integration procedure like the Fourier Series Expansion
trapezoidal or Simpson’s rule is used to determine the coefficients
an and bn.
Determine the Fourier series
2 N expansion of the motion of the
a0 
N
x
i 1
i
valve in the cam-follower system
2 N
2nti shown in the Figure.
an 
N
 x cos
i 1
i

2 N
2nti
bn 
N
 x sin i

t
y( t )  Y ; 0  t 
i 1 
(See Ex. 1.20)
Values of the periodic function x(t) at discrete point t1, t2, …tN
119 © 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units -119- -120-


Example 1.19 Fourier Series Expansion 2 / 
 2 /   2 /  t  A  t2 
Solution
a0 
 0
x(t )dt  
 0
A dt 

 
   2 0
A
 2 /   2 /  t
 0
If y(t) denotes the vertical motion of the pushrod, the motion of the an  x (t ) cos nt  dt   A cos nt  dt
 0 
valve, x(t), can be determined from the relation: 2 / 
A 2 /  A  cos nt t sin nt 

 0  t cos nt  dt  2 
2  n 2

n 
0
y( t ) x ( t ) l l t t
tan     x ( t )  2 y( t )  x ( t )  2 Y  A  0, n  1, 2, ..
l1 l2 l1 l1  
 2 /   2 /  t
 0
t 2 bn  x( t )sin n t  dt   A sin n t  dt
Where y (t )  Y ; 0  t  and    0 
  A 2 /  A  sin n t  t cos n t 
2 / 

 
0
t sin n t  dt 
2 2  n2

n 
0
Yl , x(t) can be expressed as t
By defining A  2
x (t )  A ; 0  t  
A
n  1, 2, ..
l 1
 n
,
To conduct the Fourier series expansion
1.11 Harmonic Analysis 1.12 Examples using MATLAB

Example 1.19 Fourier Series Expansion
Solution • To practice by yourself from Ex. 1.21 to Ex.1.23

Therefore the Fourier series expansion of x(t) is • The source codes of all MATLAB programs are given
A A A at the companion website
x (t )   sin 2t  sin 2t  ...
2  2
A   1 1 
   sin t  sin 2t  sin 3t  ...
 2  2 3 

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C. R. Yang, NTNU MT C. R.

台灣師範大學機電科技學系 -1- 台灣師範大學機電科技學系 -2-

C. R. Yang, NTNU MT C. R. Yang, NTNU MT

Chapter Outline 1.1

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1.1 Preliminary Remarks 1.2

• Brief history of vibration

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1.2 Brief History of Vibration 1.2 Brief History of Vibration

Origins of vibration: Around 350 B.C. –

1.2 Brief History of Vibration 1.2 Brief History of Vibration

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1.2 Brief History of Vibration 1.2 Brief History of Vibration

Joseph Lagrange (1736 – 1813) Recent contributions:

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1.2 Brief History of Vibration 1.2 Brief History of Vibration

1950 – advent (來臨) of high-speed digital computers

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1.2 Brief History of Vibration 1.3

Finite element idealization (理想化) of the body of a bus

1.3 Importance of the Study of Vibration

• Why study vibration?

• Vibrations can lead to excessive deflections and failure on

• To reduce vibration through proper design of machines and

• To improve the efficiency of certain machining, casting,

• To stimulate earthquakes for geological research and

Vibratory finishing process

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1.4 1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration

• Vibration = any motion that repeats itself after an interval of

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1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration

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1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration 1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration

• Examples of three degree-of-freedom systems:

1.4 Basic Concepts of Vibration 1.5

We need an infinite number

• Infinite number of degrees of freedom system are termed

• Finite number of degrees of freedom are termed discrete or lumped

• More accurate results obtained by increasing number of degrees of

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1.5 Classification of Vibration 1.5 Classification of Vibration

• Free Vibration: • Undamped Vibration:

• Resonance occurs when the frequency of the external force

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1.5 Classification of Vibration 1.5 Classification of Vibration

• Deterministic (確定的) Vibration:

• Nondeterministic or random Vibration:

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1.6 1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure

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1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure

• Example of the modeling of a forging hammer:

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1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure 1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure

Example 1.1 Mathematical Model of a Motorcycle Example 1.1

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1.6 Vibration Analysis Procedure 1.7