Endocrine Glands: Biology

Biology
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
INTR OD UCTION :
* The branch of biology which deals with the study of endocrine system and its physiology is known as "
Endocrinology".
* ‘‘Thomas Addison’’ is known as father of Endocrinology.
Whereas the gland with duct is called exocrine gland which secretes enzyme etc. Endocrine glands pour their
secretion directly into blood. These glands lack ducts, so these glands are called ductless glands.
* Co-ordination in the body of almost all the higher vertebrates is controlled by two systems Nervous system
and endocrine system .
* Nervous system and endocrine system are called Integrative system of the body.
* Nervous system carries informations in the form of impulses to the different parts of body. High speed services
are offered by this system.
* Where as, the work of co-ordination by endocrine system is done slowly by secretion of some chemical substances.
* Substances secreted by these glands are known as hormones. The meaning of word ' hormone' in Greek is " to
excite " = hormaei n.
Difference s bet ween Ner vous a nd Endocri ne Coor di nat ion
Ner vous Co- or di nat ion Endoc ri ne Co-or di nat ion

(Che mic al Co -or di nat ion)
1. Information passes as electrical impulses 1. Information passes as a chemical substance

along nerve fibres. through the blood and lymph.
2. There is rapid transmission of information. 2. There is slow transmission of information.
3. Response is immediate. 3. Response is usually slow.
4. Response is very exact. 4. Response is usually widespread.
5. Response is short lived. 5. Response is long-lasting.
HOR M ONE :
* The term hormone was coined by Starling .
* Hormones are also called " Primary messengers" or " chemical messengers".
* First discovered hormone is secretin. It was discovered by Bayliss & Starling in 1902.
Source & Chemical Nature :– Hormones are chemical messengers which are secreted by one part of body
and are poured directly into the blood stream, and they reach at their target place with the help of blood. A
small amount of hormone affects some specific cells or physiology of cells of organs according to atmospheric
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conditions.
Chemical Nature of Hormone :–
The animal hormones may be classified into 6 categories.
1. Amino acid derivatives :- The hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla
and thyroxine from the thyroid gland are derived from amino acid.
2. Shor t peptides :- The hormones oxytocin and vasopressin from the posterior lobe of the pituitary
gland are short peptides of 9 amino acid. The melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) from the
intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland is also short peptide of 13 amino acids.
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3. Long pept ide s :- The hormones insulin from the pancrease, adrenocortico tropin (ACTH) from the
anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, calcitonin from the thyroid gland are longer peptides of above 30
amino acids, parathormone from the parathyroid gland consists of 84 amino acids.
4. Protein :- The gonadotropic, thyrotropic and somatotropic hormones from the anterior lobe of pituitary
are protein with high molecular weights.
5. Steroids (Fat soluble) :- The hormones like cortisol and aldosterone from adrenal cortex, testosterone
from interstitial cells of testes, estrogen and progesterone from Graaffian follicles of ovary and placenta
are the examples of steroid hormones.
6. Fatty acid derivative :- Prostaglandin
Physical & Chemical Spec ialit ie s of Hormone s :–
* The molecules of most of the hormones are small, and their molecular weight is low.
* Hormones are soluble in water and are easily diffusible in tissues.
* The secretion of hormone is always in very small quantity because these are most reactive substances.
* Hormones are destroyed after use i.e. hormones can not be stored in the body.
Thyroxine is exception in this regards.
* Liver and kidneys separate hormones from blood and decompose them. The product formed after decomposition
is excreted with urine. It can not be reutilized.
* Hormones are non- antigenic & non species specific substances.
* Usually, hormones do not participate in the metabolic activities of target cells but they affect and control the
activity level of these target cells. Due to the effect of hormones, not only the rate of metabolic activities is
effected but also the permeability of cell membrane is changed so the nature of reactions is also changed.
Difference s bet ween Hormone & Enz yme
Horm one s Enzymes
1. They are produced at one site and are 1. They may act at site where they are
passed by blood to another site for action. produced or carried to another site for action.
2. They have low molecular weight. 2. They have very high molecular weight.
3. Hormones may be steroids, proteins, 3. Enzymes are proteins.
peptides or amino acid derivatives.
4. They are used up in their action. 4. They are not used up in their action.
5. They are effective in low concentration. 5. They also act in low concentration.
Their excess or deficiency may cause However, the rate of enzyme catalyzed
disorders. reactions steadily increase with an increase

in their concentration
6. They may act slowly or quickly. 6. They act slowly.
7. They may accelerate or retard the specific 7. They speed up the reactions.
reactions.
8. Hormone controlled reactions are 8. Enzyme controlled reactions are reversible.
not reversible.
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Differenc e s bet ween Hormone & Vitamins
Horm one s Vitami ns
1. Hormones may be steroids, proteins, 1. They are never proteins but simple organic
peptides or amino acid derivatives. compounds such as amines, esters,
alcohol, aldehyde or organic acids.
2. They are effective in low concentration. 2. They are needed in small quantity. Excess
Their excess or deficiency may cause vitamins are excreted. Their deficiency causes
hormonal disorders. malfunctioning called deficiency diseases or
avitaminosis.
3. They are secreted by the animal in its 3. They are rarely synthesized in the body.
own body. They are mostly taken with food.
4. Hormones influence the genes to produce 4. They act as co-enzymes and help enzymes to
specific enzymes required during metabolism. perform their function.
5. They do not influence the working of those 5. They are not produced by body organs
organs which have secreted them. (except vitamin D)
M ECHANISM OF HOR M ONAL R EACTIONS
MECHANISM OF HORMONE –– Two t ype s
* Once hormone enter into blood stream it can reach almost to any cell in the body.
* However, each hormone effects only certain kind of cells which is called as target organ.
* All hormone do not act in the same way due to location of receptor.
* Hormones are two types :
(i) Water soluble hormone
(ii) Lipid soluble hormone
* Water soluble hormones interact with a surface receptor, normally a glycoprotein and initiate a chain events
within it where as lipid soluble hormone (Steroid hormones) readily pass through the plasma membrane to
cytoplasm of the target cell. Molecular mechanism of hormones are of following types :
(1) At Gene level
(2) At P las malemma level
1. AT GENE LEVEL :- In this type of mechanism steroid hormone and Thyroxine hormones are involved.
(a) Steroid hormones :- In this process steroid hormones enter into target cell where they combine with
receptor protein, this Receptor protein conveys the hormone from cytoplasm to nucleus. This hormone
stimulates the DNA for synthesis of protein. Now DNA synthesises the m–RNA and this m–RNA goes into
cytoplasm, where Ribosome synthesize the protein by translation. This new protein is an enzyme, which affects
the vital activity of target cell.
(b) Thyroxine hormone :- The thyroid hormone thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine cause increase transcription
by certain gene in nucleus. To accomplish this, These hormones first bind directly with receptor protein in
nucleus. Receptor protein is located on chromosome. Advantage of intranuclear receptor the thyroxin hormone
can continue their expression control function for weeks :
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2. PLASM ALEMM A LEVEL :- Following hormones are example of this mechanism :
(a) Tyrosine kinase mechanism :- A good
Insulin receptor
example of this is the effect of insulin. For subunit :
transpor t of i ns uli n hormone, insulin Extracellular   insulin binding site
receptor is found in cell membrane, which

 
is made up of 4 sub-units. 2 sub-units
(  Protein) are   -protein which are
situated towards the outside of cell
membrane. This sub unit binds the insulin
hormone. 2 sub-units (Protein) protrude I .C.F
into the cytoplasm of the cell. The intra

Cytoplasmic
cellular portion of the  units has tyrosine
kin as e a c tivi ty . These rec eptors are
Insulin
usually less than 100 in most of our body
cells but may be more than 1,00,000 as
in some liver cells.
Bi nding to t he rec eptor - Binding of subunit :
tyrosine kinase domain
insulin to the outer 2 sub units of receptor  
triggers tyrosine kinase activity of the intra
 
cellular portion of -sub units. This causes
a structural change in -sub unit to become
an activated tyrosine kinase. The activated
tyrosine kinase produces
autophosphorylation of the cytoplasmic
receptor as well as phosphorylation of
some cytoplasmic protein. P P P P
P P P P
Insulin receptor substrate
(b) C-AMP or Sec ond mes seng er sys tem : This C-AMP mechanism has been shown by following
hormones :
* Adreno Corticotropin (ACTH) * Secretin
* Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) * Catecholamines
* Luteinizing hormone (LH) * Most hypothalamic releasing hormone
* Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) * Vasopressin/ADH
* Parathyroid hormone (PTH) * Glucagon
In this type of mechanism when adrenaline is attached to the surface receptor protein which found on the
plasmalemma then first of all it forms a complex which is called as hormone receptor complex (HRC). A
transducer protein is found on inner surface of receptor protein which is called as G-Protein. This G-Protein
consist of    - subunit. GTP is also found on G-Protein.
* After formation HRC than GTP change into GDP, in this process phosphate group is released which activates
the G-Protein.
* After activation of G-Protein their sub units are divided into two group i-  -subunit and ii -   - subunit
(  - subunit both are does not separated with each other)
* Activated  - subunit of G-Protein activate adenylate cyclase.
* Activated adenylate cyclase change ATP into-C-AMP on cell membrane.
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* This C-AMP goes into cytoplasm where it activates the inactive protein kinase-A to active protein kinase-A.
* This active protein kinase A changes inactive phosphorylase kinase into active phosphorylase kinase.
* This active phosphorylase kinase changes inactive Glycogen phosphorylase into active glycogen phosphorylase.
* This active glycogen phosphorylase changes glycogen into Glucose-1-Phosphate.
* Each molecule of protein kinase-A activates about 100 molecule of enzyme phosphorylase kinase and so on.
* As a result a single molecule of adrenaline releases as many as 100 million molecules of glucose within only 1
minutes (Amplification).
Amplification : Means the magnitude of the output of a system is much greater than the input.
Second messenger CAMP can induce widly differing responses in different cells, depending on what proteins
are modified.
Adrenaline Inactive G-protein

Active G-protein(10)
Receptor Inactive Adenylate Cyclase
memebrane
Plasma
Active Adenylate Cyclase
GTP ATP
GDP 2
cAMP(10 )
Cytoplasm
2
Protein Kinase A Active Protein Kinase A (10 )
(Inactive)
4
Phosphorylase Kinase Active Phosphorylase Kinase (10 )
(Inactive)
6
Glycogen Phosphorylase Kinase Active Glycogen Phosphorylase (10 )
(Inactive)
8
Glycogen Glucose-1 Phosphate (10 )
Glucose
memebrane
Plasma
Outside
(c) IP 3 & DAG Mechanism : In this type of mechanism local hormones are involved such as prostaglandins,
Acetylcholine, Somatostatin etc.
Same CAMP mechanism transduces G-protein act.

* G-protein activates enzyme phosphodiesterase
* Phosphodiesterase (Phospholipasec) Enzyme breaks phosphotidyl inositol bisphosphate into inositol triphosphate
(IP 3) and diacylglycerol (DAG ).
IP 3 is water soluble and diffuses into cytoplasm, IP 3 specially mobelized Ca ++ ion from smooth endoplasmic
reticulum and the Ca ++ ion promote smooth muscle contraction, changes in secretion by secretory cell and
changes in ciliary action.
DG remain in the membrane where it activates an enzyme called protein kinase C, which in turn, activates
many other enzymes. Activated protein kinase C play important role in cell division and cell proliferation.
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T he ac t ion of lipid soluble hormone is s lower and last longer then t he act ion of w ater s oluble
horm one.
First messenger,
an extracellular
chemical messenger
Plasma membrane
G protein intermediatory Phospholipase C
ECF
PIP2(a component of the

phospholipid tails)

 

 ICF
2 (PlP2converted by
Receptor 1 phospholipase C to
DAG and IP)3
(Binding of extracellular messenger
to receptor activates a G protein,
the subunit of which shuttles to
and activates phospholipase C) DAG IP3
3
Initiates a separate
second-massenger Intracellular Ca
2+
pathway Stored within organelles
Increase in
Second messenger 2+
cytosolic Ca
PIP2= Phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate 4
DAG = Diacylglycerol
IP3= Inositol trisphosphate Calmodulin
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1 . Binding of an extracellular messenger to a surface membrane receptor Altered protein
activates by means of a G protein intermediary the membrane-bound shape and function
enzyme phospholipase C. 6
2 . Phospholipase C converts PIP 2 a membrance component, into DAG and IP 3 . Brings about
3 . IP 3 in turn mobilizes Ca 2+ stored within organelles. cellular response
4 . Ca 2+, acting as a second messenger, activates calmodulin.
5 . Calmodulin induces a change in the shape and function of a particular intracellular protein. Many of the Ca ++
dependent cellular events are triggered by activation of calmodulin.
6 . The altered protein then prodeces the desired cellular response dictated by the extracellular messenger.
S P ECIF IC T ER M S
Chalone s  The hormones which are secreted from one endocrine gland to stimulate other endocrine
gland is called as Chalones.

Autocoide  The hormone which are secreted from one endocrine gland to target organ is called as
Autocoide.
Diabetogenic  The hormone which mainly affects or stimulates carbohydrate metabolism is called as
Diabetogenic.
Ketogenic  The hormone, which mainly affect the fat metabolism.
Calorigenic  The hormone, which mainly affects the basal metabolic rate (BMR) is called as calorigenic.
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PITUITARY GL AND
Paraventricular nucleus
Neurosecretory neurons
Supraoptic nucleus
Hypothalamus
Post. lobe
Hypothalamic-posterior
pitultary stalk
Posterior pitultary
Anterior pituitary
Anti. lobe
Mid. lobe
Systemic arterial inflow
 = Vasopressin Systemic venous outflow

 = Oxytocin
* On the basis of development pituitary gland is completely Ectodermal.
* It is situated in the sella–turcica of sphenoid bone.
* This gland is attached to the hypothalamus through a stalk which is called as infundibulum.
* The upper terminal end of infundibulum which is attached to the hypothalamus is called as tubercinerium/
M edian eminenc e .
* The lower terminal end of infundibulum is bulging type which is called as posterior lobe or pars nervosa.
* Tubercinerium, infundibulum & pars nervosa are collectively called as Neurohypophysis.
* A small & fine tube is developed in the foetus which is called as gut. This gut is developed into alimentary
canal. Anterior part of gut is called as stomodaeum (developed from ectoderm).
* A small projection is developed from dorsal surface of stomodaeum (the anterior part of gut) this part is
separated from stomodaeum and form the Rathke’s pouch .
* Upper surface of Rathke’s pouch is developed into mid–lobe which is also known as pars intermedia .
* The upper margin of R.pouch , which surrounds the infundibulum & forms a collar like structure called as
pars tuberalis.
* Remaining part of R.pouch. is developed into anterior lobe which is also called as pars distalis.
* Pars distalis, pars tuberalis & pars intermedia are collectively called as adenohypophysis.
* Neurohypophysis + Adenohypophysis is called as hypophysis cerebri or pituitar y body.
* A remaining & vestigeal cavity of R.pouch is found in the anterior lobe which is called as Hypophysis
re c e s s .
* Superior branc h of hypophys eal artery supplies blood to the hypothalamus .
* Inferior branch of hypophys eal artery supplies blood to the pituitary g land .
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* Hypophyseal portal vein collects the blood from hypothalamus and supplies to the pituitary gland .
* STH & LTH are secreted by acidophils.
* Remaining hormone of adenohypophysis are secreted by basophils.
* All hormone of pituitary gland are protein Hormone.
HOR M ONES SECR ETED B Y AD ENOHY POPHY SIS

All these hormones are of proteinaceous nature.
1. GROW T H HORM ONE OR S OM ATOT ROP IC OR S OM ATOTROP IN HORM ONE
[G.H. or S.T.H] :–
By S omatotroph c el ls
On growth
Functions : Major effect 
On metabolism
Effect on Growth :–
(1) On bone : It increases the longitudinal length of bone.
(2) On soft tissue :
(i) GH promotes mitosis & increases number of cells in many organs & tissue e.g. liver.
(ii) GH stimulates growth of muscle and cartilage due to increase synthesis of collagen, muscle grow in bulk.
Effec t on metabolis m –
Fat : Increases lipolysis so that free fatty acid level of plasma rises. Under the influence of growth hormone fat
is used for energy in preference to carbohydrate and protein, due to this protein deposition is increases.
Carbohydrate :– - Hyperglycemia develops due to decreased uptake of glucose in the cells, so it is also called
dia beto g eni c ho rmon e .
Protein : GH increases amino acid uptake by the cells of the liver & muscles & helps in protein synthesis.
* In the presence of thyroxine and insulin, growth hormones become more active and help in body growth.
In this way this hormone is important for the growth of body.
Diseas e s due to hyposecret ion or hypers ec ret ion of s omatotropin hormone :–
(a) Hyposecretion of STH :– Due to deficiency of STH in childhood or adolescence, dwarfism is observed.
* Dwarfism due to the defect of pituitary is called Ateliosis.
* Clowns of circus are such dwarfs, they are called midgets . This midget is physically & mentally normal while
sexual maturation is delayed.
(b) Hypersecretion of STH :– Due to hypersecretion in childhood and adolescence, a higher quantity of aminoacids
is supplied to the body cells.
(i) Epiphyseal cartilage present on the edges of bones does not convert into bone for a long time.
. Thus the bones of legs & hands become very long and height of that person increases very much. Body
becomes imbalanced. This disease is called Gigantism.
(ii) Acromegaly :– Due to hypersecretion of STH in adulthood, jaw bones of the affected person become
long, cheek bones buldge out, broad hands, legs & fingers of person becomes gorilla like. These symptoms
are observed as a result of acromegaly.
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2. THYROTROPHIC [T.T.H OR T.S.H.] OR THYROID STIMUL ATING HORMONE :–
* T.S.H is secreted by basophil cells. (Thyrotroph cell).

* It is glycoprotein in nature.
* T.S.H stimulates thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine. TSH helps in almost all step of the thyroid hormone synthesis
& it causes growth of thyroid gland.
* Secretion of TSH is stimulated by Thyrotrophin releasing factor & inhibited by somatostatin of hypothalamus.
3. ADRENO CORTICO TROPHIC HORMONE OR CORTICOTROPINE [ACTH] :–

* ACTH is secreted by basophil (corticotroph) cells.
* In the ACTH of man, valine and tyrosine aminoacids are more in quantity.
* It accelerates the cortex part of adrenal gland to secretes hormones.
4. FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE [FSH] :–

* It is also secreted by basophils. (Gonadotroph cell)
* It is a glycoprotein in nature.
* This is secreted in male and female both.
* In males, it stimulates spermatogenesis and normal functioning of seminiferous tubules.
* In females, it stimulates oogenesis and development of Graafian follicles in ovary.
* FSH is also known as Gametokinet ic factor.
* Estrogen hormone that is secreted by Graafian follicles is also affected by FSH.
5. LUTEINIZING HORMONE [LH OR ICSH] OR INTERSTITIAL CELL STIMUL ATING `HORMONE :–

* It is also secreted by basophil (Gonadotroph) cells. It is also a glycoprotein in nature.
* It stimulates ovulation in female as a result of this corpus luteum is formed.
* Hormone progesterone which is secreted by corpus luteum is also stimulated by L.H.
* In men LH is called ICSH. It affects the Leydig's cells or Interstitial cells of testes and stimulates the secretion of
male hormone " Te s tos terone".
* L.H. is also called " gamete releasing factor".
* FSH and LH both are called gonadotrophic hormone GTH.
* FSH and LH act in combined form so these are called synergesic hormone.
* Gonadotrophic hormones (FSH & LH) secretion start secreting during puberty. Their secretion is regulated by
hypothalamus. It is supposed that there a biological clock present to control all this.
6. LUTEOTROPHIC OR PROLACTIN OR LACTOGENIC OR MAMMOTROPHIN HORMONE (PRL) :
It is secreted by acidophil (Lactotroph) cells.
Function of prolactin hormone.
(1) Lactation (Galactopoiesis) :- Prolactin is responsible for lactation in postpartum (after delivery) women.
* Regulation of Prolactin secretion by Hypothalamus :- Hypothalamus mainly stimulate the production of
all pituitary hormone, but it mainly inhibits prolactin production because normally hypothalamus prolactin inhibitory
hormone (Dopamine) is greater than the releasing hormone.
* Breast is prepared for lactation by oestrogen (duct growth) and progesterone (lobule growth) but both of these
hormone inhibit the actual secretion of milk.
* Dopamine is a catecholamine (Biologically active amine) and neurotransmitter in the hypothalamus. It inhibits
lactation.
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* During pregnancy :- Prolactin hormone steadily increase until term but due to high level of oestrogen and
progesterone (secreted by placenta) lactation is inhibited.
* After expulsion of the placenta at parturition, there is an abrupt decline in circulating estrogen and progesterone.
* The drop of circulating estrogen initiate lactation.
* Nursing stimulates prolactin secretion.
* Prolactin inhibits the action of GnRH on the pituitary and antagonize the action of gonadotrophin on the ovaries.
Ovulation is inhibited and the ovaries gets inactive.
* Nursing is important and effective method of birth control.
7. HORMONES SECRETED BY MIDDLE LOBE OF PITUITARY GL AND :–
* The part of adenohypophysis of pituitary gland, which is very close to neurohypophysis is a very thin portion, it
is called pars intermedia or middle lobe of pituitary gland.
* In man it is in the form of a thin membrane only. It is inactive in men.
MEL ANOCY TE STIMUL ATING HORMONE [MSH] :–
* It is secreted by middle lobe. (By corticotroph cell)
* MSH is also called Intermedin .
* In man, MSH is secreted by anterior lobe, because middle lobe is ill- developed.
* It stimulates the melanocytes to synthesize melanin in mammals.
* This hormone is related with change in the colour of skin in Amphibian and Reptiles. This phenomenon of
colour changing is known as metachrosis.
* It darkens the complexion of skin by distributing melanin pigment evenly under the skin.
* Just opposite to it, melatonin secreted by pineal body, collects the melanin pigments at one place thus fairing
the complexion of skin.
* MSH is found in all the vertebrates, but it is functional in poikilothermic animals e.g. fishes, amphibians, reptiles
etc.
* The importance of MSH in man has not been evaluated.
HORMONE RELE ASING FACTORS OF HYPOTHALA MUS :–

Hormones secreted by adenohypophysis of pituitary gland are under the control of neurosecretory cells of
hypothalamus. These neurosecretory cells produce some substances in very small amount which are called
releasing factors.
(1) Growth hormone releasing factor:- [GHRF]:- It stimulates the secretion of growth hormone.
(2) T hyrotrophin releasing factor [TRF]:- It stimulates the secretion of TSH.
(3) Follicle st imulat i ng hormone releasing factor [FSHRF] :– It stimulates the secretion of
FSH.
GnRH
Luteinising hormone releasing factor [LHRF] :– It stimulates the secretion of LH.

(4) Growth hormone inhibitory factor [GHIF] (Somatostatin) :– It inhibits the secretion of GH.
(5) Prolactin release factor [PRF] :– It stimulates the secretion of Prolactin.
(6) Prolactin inhibitory factor [PIF] (Dopamine) :– It inhibits the secretion of Prolactin.
(7) Melanocyte release factor [MRF] :– It stimulates the secretion of MSH.
(8) Melanocyte inhibitory factor [MIF] :– It inhibits the secretion of MSH.
(9) Adrenocorticotrophic releasing hormone (CRH) :– It stimulates secretion of Adrenal cortex hormone.
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POSTERIOR LOBE OR NEUROHYPOPHYSIS :–
Posterior lobe of pituitary gland is 1/4th part of total gland. It is just like nervous tissue, because in it, the terminal
ends of the axons of neurosecretory cells of hypothalamus are swollen. These swollen ends are called " Herring
bodies". Hormones are released in these bodies.
* There are some large, branched fatty neuroglial supporting cells in between axons, that are called "Pituicytes".
1. Posterior pituitary hormones are not synthesised in the gland itself but they are synthesized in the
supraoptic nuclei and paraventricular nuclei of hypothalamus.
2. T he hormone are then transpor ted from their origin to posterior pituitar y through a xons of
hypothlamohypo-physeal tract and stored in association with 2 protein i.e. Neurophysin-I, and
Neurophysin-II
(A) Vasopre ssin or Pitre s sin or Ant i Diuret ic Hormone [A DH] :–
Main functions of ADH :– Its main function is to increase the reabsorption of water in collecting duct and in
distal convoluted part of uriniferous tubules. Due to this, amount of urine is reduced. So it is also called ADH.
* The hormone increases the blood pressure by constriction of blood vessels of tissues.
* Due to hyposecretion of ADH or vasopressin, the amount of urine increases, this process is called Diuresis.
Patient feels thirsty, Dehydration starts in the body. This disease is called Diabetes insipidus (taste less urine,
polyuria).
* Due to hyposecretion of ADH, deficiency of water starts in Extra
cellular fluid (ECF), Blood pressure reduces, urine becomes dilute
and blood becomes thick or concentrate.
* Intake of coffee, tea and excess alcohol etc decrease the secretion
of ADH.
* Secretion of ADH is maximum in desert fauna (animals of
xerophytic region) e.g. camel.
* Kangaroo – Rat (Dipodomys) also shows hypersecretion of
ADH.
Kangaroo - Rat never drinks water in its life- time.
* Hypersecretion of ADH causes dilution of blood and increases

concentration of urine and thus blood pressure increases.
(B) Oxytocin or Pitocin :– It is the main parturition hormone. It stimulates the fast/ rapid contractions and
expansions of non- striated muscles of the uterine wall at the last moment of gestation period (pregnancy). Due
to this uterine constrictions, labour pains start just before child birth.
* This hormone is secreted by pituitary glands of mother at the time of parturition.
* This hormone also initiates the contractions in uterine wall muscles during copulation/ coitus as a result of that
semen of man is sweeped out in the fallopian tubes of woman.
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* After parturition, this hormone constricts the uterine wall and thus brings back to the normal position.
* Oxytocin hormone contracts the myoepithelial cells present at all the sides of alveoli of mammary glands. Thus
it helps in milk ejection so it is also called milk let down hormone.
* In female, this hormone related with emotion.
* Even thought, cry or sound of baby can bring about release of this hormone in lactating mother.
This hormone helps during egg laying in birds.
Injection of oxytocin are initiates cows and buffaloes for instant milk release.
THY R OID GLAND
It is the largest endocrine gland in the body . This is

situated at the latero- ventral side of the joint of trachea
and larynx in the neck region of man. The shape of this
gland is like letter H. It is bilobed in birds and mammals,
but it is single lobed in reptiles. Both of its lobes are
connected by non-glandular band, formed of a connective
tissue. This band is called isthmus.
Isthmus
Mono Iodo Tyrosine
Di Iodo Tyrosine
Tri Iodo Tyrosine
Tetra Iodo Tyrosine
Thyroxine
* It is endodermal in origin.
* Endos t yle of lower vertebrates like Herdma nia , Amph ioxus is homologous of thyroid gland.
* In human weight of this gland about 25 gm to 35 gm approximately. (This is some what larger in women as
compared to men).
* Each lobe of thyroid gland is made up of connective tissue. There are present so many follicles made up of
glandular cells in connective tissue.
* These follicles are scattered in loose connective tissue, the stroma. A layer of cuboidal glandular cells is found in
the wall of follicles. An iodised colloidal substance Thyroglobulin is filled in the cavity of these follicles.
Thyroglobulin is glycoprotein in nature. Parafollicular cells are occasionally found in between basement
membrane of the follicle & these cells secrete calcitonin

Thyroid is the only endocrine gland in the body which stores its hormone in its inactive state.
Pro duct ion of T hyroxine :–
Thyroxine contains two phenyl rings linked up by an ether bridge.
Biosynthesis :
(1) Iodide trapping – when KI taken up by follicular cells.
(2) Oxidation of Iodide – KI  I2.
The oxidation of iodine is promoted by the enzyme peroxidase.
12 E
Biology
(3) Organification – The binding of iodine with the thyroglobulin molecule is called organification of the thyroglobulin
Tyrosine + I2 – MIT & DIT.
(4) Coupling – MIT + DIT  T3.
DIT + DIT  T4
All of these step of thyroxine biosynthesis are stimulated by TSH hormone.
T1 = Mono Iodo tyrosine
T2 = Di Iodo tyrosine
T3 = Tri Iodo thyronine (20%)
T4 = Tetra Iodo thyronine (80%)
* Secretion of T4 is comparatively more than T3, and T3 hormone is four times more effective than T4 hormone.
T4 changes into T3 on reaching in the tissues.
* T4 is called thyroxine in this T- chain of hormones.
* Thyroxine or Tetra- Iodo- Thyronin is a derivative of aminoacid.
* Each thyroglobulin molecule contain an average of T 3 molecule for every 14 molecule of thyroxine
(1 : 14 – T3 : T4).
* Thyroid hormones in the form of thyroglobulin are stored in the follicles in an amount sufficient to supply the
body with its normal requirements of thyroid hormone for 3 months.
* E.C. Kendal first of all crystallised this thyroxine hormone.
* Harrington and Barger studied the molecular structure of thyroxine.
* Thyroid gland requires iodine "120 g" every day for the production of thyroxine.
* Normal recommended minimum intake 200 gm/day, if iodine in take < 50 gm/day, then thyroid disorder
develops.
* If there is deficiency of iodine in food then thyroid try to absorbs more and more iodine from blood and increases
its size it is called simple goitre.
* Goitre is found more abundently in the persons those live on mountain slopes, because iodine (at that place)
flows along with water. When most of the people show the symptoms of this disease then it is called endemic
g o i t re .
* Persons who take sea foods, never show the symptoms of goitre.
1. Grow th, Development and M etamor phosis :–
* Thyroxine stimulates the metamorphosis of tadpole larva in amphibians.

* Due to its deficiency, larva does not show metamorphosis to be an adult.
* Some amphibian larvae e.g. Ambystoma and Necturus (Water dog) do not undergo metamorphosis to be an
adult, and these larval stages start reproducing without gaining adulthood. This process is called as Paedogenesis.
E 13
Pre-Medical
2. METABOLISM :–
General :
(i) Thyroxine regulates the Basal metabolic rate (BMR) in the body.
BMR : The rate of calorie consumption that is necessary for life is called basal metabolic rate of body.
BMR increases  Body Temp. increase  loses weight.
Over production of heat called as calorigenesis.
The hormone enhances the oxidative metabolism of body cells as a result of it energy production is also increased
in the form of calories so this hormone is also called calorigenic hormone.
(ii) Increase activity of Na + – K + ATPase. It increases the number of mitochondria in all the cells of body i.e. it
increases metabolic rate of life. It increases the consumption of oxygen by the cells of body.
Fat M etabolis m :–
* Enhances enzyme activity both synthesis & predominantly catabolism of cholesterol.
* Carbohydrate ac tion 
* Blood sugar increases, act as a diabetogenic hormone.
* Protein  both catabolism & anabolism but at optimum concentration of thyroxine, anabolism is dominant.
3. ON INDIVIDUAL SYSTEM : Heart.
* Thyroxine increases – Heart beat increases (Tachycardia) – Increases Cardiac output.
* Maintain the contraction of myocardium.
* It regulates the heart- beat because it acts directly on SA-Node.
* CNS – optimum conc. of thyroxine is required for development of the nerve fibre & their myelination.
* GIT – thyroxine increase motility of GIT causes diarrhoea. Appetite also increase.
* On blood – Thyroxine stimulate RBC formation .
Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion :–
* The hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland control rate of thyroid secretion.
* Anterior pituitary gland secretes TSH .
* The most important effect of TSH is proteolysis of thyroglobulin which cause release of thyroxine into the blood.
* Anterior pituitary secretion of TSH is controlled by a hypothalamic hormone thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH).
* Increase thyroid hormone in the body fluid decreases the secretion of TSH by anterior pituitary.
14 E
Biology
IRREGULARITIES OF THYROID GLAND AND ITS DISEASES :–
1. Hyposecretion of thyroid or Hypothyroidism :–

* It may be a genetic disorder or due to deficiency of iodine in food or due to excess iodine excretion in urine.
* In childhood, hypothyroidism causes Cretinism, these children are called cretin, they may show such symptoms
like :- Thick lips, protruding tongue, pot belly, ill developed sex organs & retarded physical & mental growth.
The children remain dwarf and become ugly. Their BMR, rate of heart beat and body temperature decreased.
They are sterile.
* Hypothyrodism may cause abnormal skin, deaf - mutism.
* In adult women, hypothyroidism may cause irregular menstrual cycle.
Cretinism
(Sing & Symptoms)
Arrest of growth
I Physical II Mental III Sexual
Idiocy/Imbecelity (i) infantile sex

(A) Skeletal (B) Muscular (C) Visceral (ii) No secondary
sex characteristics
Dwarf Weak muscles Not so retarded,
hence potbellied
* In adults, hypothyroidism causes Myxoedema. (Gull's disease) The symptoms of this disease are falling of hair,
loose and swollen skin, deposition of adipose fat and mucous beneath the skin so body as a whole becomes
obese, BMR and blood pressure are reduced. Patient becomes sensitive to cold and shows loss of sexual power.
Mental slowing,bradycardia, weight gain occurs.
* Simple goitre/Endemic goitre :- It is due to deficiency of iodine in food, and also known as Colloid goitre.
Thyroid gland enlarges due to swelling. It is not a genetic disorder. The neck also swells up and looks like a
collar. It is cured by extra intake of iodine in food or intake of sea food.
* Hashimoto's disease :- In this disease, there is acute deficiency of thyroxine. Then the medicines given for the
treatment of disease or even hormone thyroxine itself acts as poison or antigen. In its reaction, body produces
antibodies, which destroy the thyroid gland itself. It is known also as suicide of thyroid or Autoimmune
t hy ro id it is .
2. Hypersecretion of thyroid or Hyperthyroidis m :–
The gland shows enlargement due to some microbial infections or genetic disorders, and this enlarged gland
secretes thyroxine in excess amount. As a result of it, BMR, heart beat rate, blood pressure, absorption of
glucose in intestine and consumption of oxygen increase. Too much energy is produced in mitochondria, that
it is not stored in the form of ATP but it is released in the form of heat in the body. Thus in place of growth,
unnecessary irritation, exhaustion are observed in the body of patient. Due to excess heat/calorie/e nergy
formation, patient feels extreme hot.
Hyperthyroidism may cause following disorders in the body :-
Exophthalmic Goitre or Grave’s disease or Bas edow’s dis ease or t hyrotoxicosis
In this disease, deposition of mucous beneath the eyeball takes place. As a result of that eyes look enlarged and
buldging or protruding out side the eye socket, giving the patient a fearful and staring look. In this disease,
E whole gland shows enlargement in the neck region. 15
Pre-Medical
Plummer's disease :– In this disease, thyroid gland does not show even growth but there become small
tumours all over the thyroid just like buds. it is also called Toxic adenoma.
Thyroid gland shows enlargement (swelling) at the time of hypersecretion.
Grave's Disease Plummer's Disease
Para follicular c ells or C–cells :–

These cells are found in the stroma of thyroid gland & basal part of follicle. These cells are of endocrine nature.
They are the remains of ultimobranchial bodies made up of fifth branchial pouches of embryo, i.e. para
follicular cells are endodermal in origin.
These cells secrete thyrocalcitonin (Calcitonin) hormone which lacks iodine. It is a protein.
Thyrocalcitonin reduces the destruction of bones and increases the rate of excretion of Ca ++ in urine, thus
reduces the number of Ca ++ in extra cellular fluid.
* It enhances the deposition of Ca ++ in bones thus making bones solid and strong.
* This hormone is antagonistic to Col lip hormone or parathormone .
PAR ATH Y ROID GL AND
* These glands remain embedded in the dorsal surface of thyroid gland They are two pairs in number They
remain embedded in each lobe of thyroid completely or partially.
* It was discovered by Raynard and its detailed description was given by Sandrom.
* Total weight about 140 mg and its size is 6 × 3 × 2 mm.
* These glands are made by epithelium of third and fourth branchial pouches or pharyngeal pouches slits of
embryo i.e. these are also endodermal in origin.
* These glands secrete only one hormone - parathormone. It is also known as Collip's hormone or PTH. Its
was obtained by Collip in its pure form.
* This hormone is proteinaceous in nature/Polypeptide hormone.
* Parathormone is essential for survival because it significantly contributes to "homeostatis" by regulating the
amount of calcium and phosphate ion in ECF.
* Calcium is key element in many physiological functions like proper permeability of cell membranes, muscular
activities, nerve impulse conduction, heart beat, blood coagulation, bone formation, fertilization of ova.
* Calcium is most abundant of all minerals found in the body and about 99% of calcium and phosphorus are
contained in the bones. (1% Ca +2 found in ECF).
* Maintenance of proper calcium level under "homeostasis" is in fact, a combined function of parathormone,
thyrocalc itonin and vitamin D 3 (cholecalciferol).
* Parathormone promotes absorption of calcium from food in the intestine and its reabsorption from nephron in
the kidneys.
16 E
Biology
* Simultaneously, it accelerates elimination of phosphate in urine (phosphaturic action). Thus, calcium level tend
to rise in the ECF due to effect of parathormone and phosphate level is decreased in ECF.
* This calcium is then utilized by bone-forming cells, (Osteoblast) in bone formation under the influence of vitamin D3.
* Parathormone stimulates the osteoclast cells to feed upon bones, these cells remove unnecessary parts of bones
by melting, thus change asymmetrical bone into symmetrical bone. The remoulding of bone is done by these
cells life long. As a result of this, amount of Ca remains constant in blood in normal conditions.
Each 100 ml of blood contains 12 mg of Ca++.
About 1 kg of calcium is found in an adult man.
* Parathormone maintains the activity of muscles.
* Just opposite to it, thyrocalcitonin hormone works antag onistically to oppose the parathormone and
Vitamin D. Thyrocalcitonin reduces the amount of Ca ++ in blood by increasing the excretion of Ca ++ in urine
and by reducing destruction of bone.
1. Hyposecretion :– Due to hyposecretion of parathormone or PTH, the amount of Ca ++ decreases in ECF (It is
known as hypocalcaemia ) and amount of PO4--- is increased.
* Due to the deficiency of Ca++ in blood, muscles and nerves get unnecessarily irritated and start convulsion and
cramping. Sometimes voluntary muscles remain contracted for a long time, it is known as tetany disease.
* If this tetany happens in intercostal muscles and diaphragm, then animal dies due to Asphyxia.
* Removal of parathyroid gland causes quick death . It is the most fatal state/ lethal condition.
2. Hypersecretion :– Due to hypersecretion of PTH , osteoclast cells feed excess amount of bone unnecessarily.
As a result of this, bones become brittle and weak. This condition is called as Osteoporosis.
* When quantity of Ca++ is increases in ECF and level of PO4--- is reduced, this condition is known as hypercalcaemia
and hypophosphatemia respectively.
* Due to excess deposition of Ca ++ in kidneys and gall bladder, stones are formed.
C–Cells /P ara–follic ular c ells P ara Thyroid Gland

; 36#1/53 6290
6Ca+2 096Level 059610+
57 563)
Thyro calcitonin
6Ca+2 096level 0596?5357 563)
; 36#1/53 6290
E 17
Pre-Medical
ADR ENAL OR SUPR A RENAL GLANDS
Position, Origin & Structure :–
* This gland was discovered by a scientist Eustachius.
* It is found on the head (anterior most part) of both the kidneys.
* Adrenal gland is ecto mesodermal in origin.
Adrenal cortex
Adrenal gland
Kidney
(a)
Fig. : Mic roc opic str uc ture of adrenal gla nd
* It weights about 4 - 6 gm in man.

* Whole gland is surrounded by a fibrous capsule.
* Each gland has two parts :-
Outer part of gland is called cortex and inner part is called medulla .
* Cortical portion is 80-90% and is develop from mesoderm of embryo.
* Medullar portion of this gland is made up of neural - ectoderm of embryo. Only 10 - 20% part is medullar part
of gland.
Adrenal Cortex :–
Most of the cells of this part are fatty. This portion is divided into three regions from periphery to centre.
1. Outer zone or Zona glomerulosa :-
Mineralocorticoid hormones are secreted by this zone.
2. Middle zone or Zona fasc iculata :-

This zone secretes glucocorticoid hormones. In this region
polyangular cells are arranged in the layers.
3. Inner zone or Zona reticularis :– Cells of this region
are spread in the form of a network, these are arranged
in layers. This zone secretes a small amount of
sexhormones.
18 E
Biology
About 40-50 hormones are synthesized in adrenal cortex. All these hormones are of steroid nature. Their basic
constituent is cholesterol. these are also called corticoids. Out of these 40-50 hormones, only 7-8 hormones
are active.
1. M ineraloc orticoids :–
2 main hormones fall under this category.
(1) Aldosterone (2) Deoxycorticosterone
* These hormones are related with distribution of water in tissues and balance of electrolytes in the body.
* These hormones maintain the ionic balance of Cl,K+, Na+ and water in the blood and ECF.
* Aldosterone hormone affects distal convoluted parts of uriniferous tubules & early Cortical tubule of kidneys.
* It basically activates the Na + – K + pump.
* It helps in reabsorption of Na+ & Cl ions and controls the excretion of K + ions.
* Aldosterone hormone is also known as salt retaining hormone it increases sodium concentration.
* An increase in Na + ion concentration (than normal) in ECF is called Hypernatraemia .
* In hyposecret ion of aldosterone hormone, there is a tremendous loss of ions of Na + , Cl  a nd
HCO3--- by urination and K+ ions are increased in blood.
2. Glucocorticoids :– (Secretion control by ACTH).
Mainly hormone comes under this category is Cortisol. (Life saving hormome).
(A) Cor t is ol :– It is an impor tant hormone secreted by zona fasciculata. It is also know n as
Hydrocor ticosterone. Cortisol has a small amount of mineralocorticoid acitivity.
Metabolic Effect :
On carbohydrate metabolis m :
Increases sugar in blood causes Hyperglycemia.
Protein metabolism : Cortisol causes lysis of proteins in some organs like lymphoid tissues (thymus, lymph
node etc), muscles, bones, skin etc. (Deamination & urea formation stimulated or inhibit protein synthesis).
Fat metabolism :–
(i) Facilitates lipolysis.
(ii) Promotes deposition of fat, in unusual sites of the body.
On nucleic acid metabolism :–
Cortisol inhibits nucleic acid synthesis in all other tissues except liver where (i.e., in the liver) RNA synthesis is
increased.
. This hormone is " anti - inflammatory . This prevent the actions of WBC and collagen fibres in tissues,
so used in diseases like oedema,arthritis/Rheumatism.
. This hormone is Immuno-suppressive, because it check the immune reactions by antibodies. So it is also
used in allergy.
. Now a days, cortisols are used in transplantation of organs.
3. S ex - Hormone s /S ex cor t ic oids/Gonadocor t icoids :–
* Sex hormones secreted by adrenals are called gonadocorticoids.

* They are secreted in very small amount by zona reticularis.
* Male hormones are called androgens and female hormones are called oestrogens.
* Both the hormones are secreted by men & women both, but sex hormones secreted by gonads inactivate the
sex hormone of opposite sex secreted by adrenal gland.
* These hormones stimulate the muscles, external genitalia and sexual behaviour.
* Male hormone secreted by adrenal gland is mainly dehydroepiandrosterone [DHEA].
* Female sex hormones progesterone and estrogens are secreted in minute quantities.
E 19
Pre-Medical
Adrenal medulla :–
Origin : The adrenal medulla develops from the neuroectoderm of the embryo.
Structure : The adrenal medulla consists of rounded groups of relatively large and granular cells. These cells
are modified of sympathetic nervous system which have lost normal processes and have acquired a glandular
function. These cells are called chromaffin cells or phaeochromocytes. These cells are connected with the
preganglionic motor fibres of sympathetic nervous system, therefore, these are discussed together as
s ym pathe tic oad renal s ys t em.
Hormones of Adrenal medulla :–
Two hormones are secreted by this part. These collectively are called catecholamine.
These hormones are synthesized by chromaffin cells with Tyrosine amino acid.
(A) Adrenaline or Epinephrine :–
* This hormone is 80% part of the total hormones secreted by Adrenal medulla
* It was termed as Emergency hormone by Walter Cannon, because this hormone prepares the body to face
unavoidable emergency situations.
Functions of Adrenaline :–
(1) It constricts the blood vessels of skin (Vaso constriction).
(2) The hormone enhances the flow of blood by vasodilation of blood vessels of brain, heart, liver and skeletal
muscles.
(3) Due to effect of this hormone, heart beat, blood pressure, BMR, amount of glucose in blood increases.
(4) Adrenaline enhances the heart beat and thus increases cardiac output, due to this, circulation of blood becomes
faster.
(5) The hormone stimulates the trachea and bronchi muscles to relax, as a result of it, rate of breathing is increased.
So adrenaline hormone is used to cure asthma.
(6) It dialates the pupils of eyes. Goose flesh is observed due to its effect. It constricts the erecter pilli muscle of hair,
and hair are raised.
(7) The hormone stimulates contraction in spleen, as a result of it, spleen pours its stored blood into blood stream.
(8) It checks the secretion of saliva and reduces the peristaltic movements in alimentary canal.
(9) Due to the effect of this hormone, clotting period of blood is reduced, the hormone also stimulates the uterus of
female animals to contract.
* Adrenaline provides the body with an emergent chemical defence mechanism in stress conditions that threaten
the physical integrity and chemical consistancy of the body e.g. accident, restlessness, fear anger, mental tension,
pain etc. It immediately prepares the body to face the emergency by a violent stress or alarm reaction.
* The cortisol hormone of adrenal cortex serves to maintain the body in living condition and recover it from the
severe effects of stress reactions. Thus, an increased output of cortisol is "life saving" in "shock conditions".
So it is also known as life-saving hormone.

* The hormones of adrenal medulla prepare the animal for fear, fight or flight in emergency conditions, (by
excess secretion of these hormones) Adrenaline hormone is called 3F = FFF hormone and adrenal gland is
called "triple F gland" (FFF gland)
(B) Noradrenaline or Norepinephrine hormone :–
* It is only 20% part of total hormones secreted by adrenal medulla.
* It acts as vasoconstrictor, thus increases the blood pressure. Exception - It does not constrict coronary
artery of heart.
20 E
Biology
Control of adrenal Secretion :–
* Adrenocorticotropic hormone [ACTH] of anterior lobe
of pituitary gland controls the hormones secreted by
adrenal cortex.
* ACTH controls very little or even does not control the

secretion of mineralocorticoids. These are controlled by
Renin hormone secreted by kidneys.
* Pituitary gland does not control the secretion of adrenal

Circadian
medulla hormone s, the adrenal medulla hormone s rhythm
secretion is controlled by nervous system.
* The amount of cortisol and ACTH in blood is maximum

in the morning and minimum in early part of night.
Control of ACTH secretion
IRREGULAR SECRETION OF ADRENAL HORMONE :–

(i) Hypos ecret ion :–
Addison's disease :- Hypoadrenalism
* Caused due to hyposecretion ofcorticoid hormone of adrenal gland, following are some symptomsof addison's
disease dehydration in the body, Blood pressure, BMR and body temperature are reduced, excretion of
water and Na + increase. The skin of hands, neck and face turns to bronze colour .
* Hyposecretion of corticoids causes reduction in amount of glucose in blood, it is called hypoglycemia. In this
disease, patient may die, so hormones of adrenal gland are called life - saving hormones
(ii) Hyper s ec ret ion :–
Cus h ing's s yndrome (dis eas e) :–
* Due to hypersecretion of corticoids, body increases breadthwise or body becomes broad because excess deposition
of fat under the skin (to cause moon face, fish mouth and buffalo hump). Protein catabolism increases in body.
Irregular growth of skin and bones is observed. Hyperglycemia occurs. Amount of Na and water increase in
ECF, which is called oedema. Due to this B.P. also increases.
Conn's Disease :– (Primary aldosteronism)
* Due to excess of mineralocorticoids, an imbalance of Na +, K + is observed. This disease is called "Conn's
disease". Due to this disease there occurs irregularity in nervous system, as a result of that muscles get contracted
Muscle weakness, hypertension and hypokalemia are observed.
Sec. Hyperaldosteronism :– Blood pressure increases, and excess mental tension and weakness in muscles
are observed.
Adrenog enital S yndrome/Adrenal virilis m/P s eudohermaphrodite :–
In this case, girls develop male characters. eg. menstrualion cycle is stopped, uterus and ovary are damaged and
clitoris becomes enlarged.
* If in a man, female sex hormone is secreted by adrenal is in excess amount, He will show feminine characters
i.e. development of mammary glands this disorder is called gynaecomastia.
* If in a male, androgens are present in excess amount, it developes extra long penis. This defect is called
mac rog enitosomia i.g. manis , Armedilo.
E 21
Pre-Medical
* Adrenal gland is also known as 4 - S gland
* S – Sugar metabolism
S – Salt retaining actions
4–S
S – Sex hormones
S – Stress reactions
THY M US GL AND
This is situated in the anterior part of heart called mediastinal space. It is a bilobed gland. It is originated by
third branchial pouch of embryo, i.e. it is endodermal in origin.
* Thymus gland is well developed in a new born child, but it reduces continuously from adulthood to old age. It
remains in the form of a string at last.
* Its structure is just like a lymph gland. It is covered by connective tissue coat capsule and internally both the
lobes are redividing in to small lobules.
* Each lobule has a dense, darkly staining peripheral cortex and a looser lightly staining central medulla.
* The cortex consists of densely packed lymphocytes.
* The medulla consists of reticular epithelial cell, a few lymphocytes and the "Corpuscles of Hassalls" or
thymic corpuscles.
* Thymus gland is related to immune system of body.
Hormone s and funct ions of thymus gland :-

* Thymus gland secretes thymosin or thymin hormone, that is proteinaceous in nature/Polypeptide.
(1) This hormone helps in immune system of the body.

(2) Hassall's corpuscles are found in thymus gland, these are also called thymic corpuscles or epithelial cell
or reticular cell, they act as phagocytes.
(3) After the birth, T - Cells or T - lymphocytes are matured in thymus gland, then these lymphocytes are
releases by thymus gland, reach to lymphatic organs like spleen, payer's patches and lymph nodes & deposited
in it
(4) Thymosin hormone stimulates the maturation of lymphocytes to destroy the antigens produced by bacteria or
pathogen.
(5) According to one of the theories of Ageing the decline an disappearance of Thymus gland by middle age is the
primary cause of ageing.
(6) Thymosin helps in the development of sex gland but inhibits sexual maturity in early young age.
(7) Thymus provide cell mediated immunity so thymus is also called "Throne of immunity" or "Training school
of T -lymphoc ytes " .
Thymosin also premote production of antibody to provide humoral immunity.
22 E
Biology
* Secretion of thymin decreases the neuromuscular transmission, so hyper secretion of thymine may cause
myasthenia gravis . It provides the antibody against receptor & block the NM junction.
PINEAL BOD Y
Position :–
* It is situated at the dorsal side of diencephalon of anterior part of brain i.e. prosencephalon. It is also known as
Epiphysis cerebri. Pineal body is a part of brain. It is ectodermal in origin.
* There are found pinealocyte cells (formed by the modification of nerve cells) and supporting interstitial cells or
neuroglial cells in pineal body.
* Pineal body called as third eye in frog.
Hormone & Funct ions :–
* Pineal body secretes a hormone melatonin, which is an amino acid.
* Melatonin is functional in lower vertebrates only.
* In amphibians and reptiles, this hormone is related with metachrosis (change in the colour of skin) It affects the
Melanophores of skin, thus acts antagonistically to the MSH of pituitary i.e. it fairs the complexion of skin.
* Melatonin also influence metabolism. pigmentation, menstrual cycle & defence capability.
* Mid part of gland secretes antigonadial hormone.
* The hormone controls the sexual behaviour in mammals. It inhibits the sexual irritation, and also inhibits the
development of genitalia and their functions.
* If pineal body is removed from rat, these will attain premature adolescence.
* The gland probably controls the sexual behaviour according to light differentiation, thus it acts as a biological
c lo c k .
* It is proved that the level of melatonin rises during periods of darkness and falls during periods of light.
* Children blind from birth attain puberty eariler than normal.
* Maximum development of pineal body upto 7yr & then it undergoes involution & at the age of 14 yr interstitial
tissue and crystals of CaCO3 or Ca3PO4 are deposited in it, these are called "Brain sand" or "Acervuli"
PANCREAS
* Position :– Pancreas is a pink coloured mixed
gland situated in the backside of stomach in
abdominal cavity.
* Acini are found in pancreas which secrete digestive
enzymes. Acini form 99% part of pancreas gland.
These are exocrine in nature. There are found
numerous small endocrine glands scattered in
between the acini, these small endocrine glands,

are called Islets of Langerhans. They form only
1% part of the gland. These were discovered by
F ig . : P anc re atic is le t w it h s ur round ing
L an g er h a ns .
ac i ni s h ow i n g dif feren t c e ls l
* Each islet of Langerhans has 4 types of cells
(A) Alfa cells (  - cells) : These are the largest cells present in peripheral region these are approximately
25% of the total cells. They secrete glucagon hormone.
E 23
Pre-Medical
(B) Beta cells ( - cells) : These are the small cells present in central region. These are about 60–65% part
of total cells. They secrete Insulin hormone.
(C) Delta cells (  - cells) OR Gamma cells (  - cells) :
These cells are found in middle region. These are about 10% part of total cells, They secrete somatostatin
hormone which regulates the activities of  - cells and  - cells.
(D) Fcell or PP – cells : Along with above mentioned cells, some other cells are also found in islet of
Langerhans, these are called PP - cells which secrete pancreatic polypeptide hormone.
(1) Ins ulin :–
* It was first prepared/found by Benting and Best.
* Molecular structure of insulin was given by A.F. Sanger (with the help of cow's insulin)
The term insulin was also given by A.F. Sanger.
Insulin is the first protein that is artificially synthesized in lab and is crystallized.
* Human insulin was synthesized by "Tsan"
* One molecule of Insulin is made up of 51 - amino acids that has 2 chains.
(i)  - chain - It is made up of 21 aminoacids
(ii)  - chain - It is made up of 30 amino acids. Both the branches or chains are bind together with cross
bonds of disulphide bonds.
* "A.F. Sanger" was awarded by Noble Prize for it.
Funct ions of Insulin hormone :–
(I) Actions on cell membrane permeability.
(II) Actions on metabolism of : Carbohydrate, Protein, Fat, Nucleic acid, Mineral.
On membrane permeability : Except brain cells, R.B.Cs. retina, insulin stimulates the permeability and
consumption of glucose in all somatic cells
Actions on Metabolism :–
Carbohydrate :
(1) Insulin inhibits gluconeogenesis.
(2) Promotes glycogenesis. There are two major sites of glycogenesis, liver and the muscles.
(3) Enhances peripheral utilization (oxidation) of glucose, causing the blood sugar level to fall.
(4) Inhibits glycogenolysis.
Fat :
(i) Insulin promotes lipogenesis and inhibits lipolysis.
(ii) Insulin also inhibits formation of ketone bodies.
Protein : Insulin promotes protein synthesis by promoting uptake of amino acid by liver and muscle cell.
Nucleic acid : Insulin promotes synthesis of DNA and RNA.
. Normal concentration of sugar in blood is 90 - 110 mg. per 100 ml. of blood.
. It affect the BMR in cells.

Hyposecretion of Insulin :–
(1) Due to hyposecretion of insulin, body cells can not use the sugar stored in blood. So amount of sugar is increases
in blood and this disease is called "Diabetes mellitus" or sugar disease. In this disease, concentration of glucose
in blood is increased from normal concentration.
World diabetes day - 14 November
* Glucose is excreted through urine, if amount of glucose is in excess in the blood, this is known as "Glycosuria".
In this stage. amount of glucose in blood increases upto > 180 mg./dl. of blood.
24 E
Biology
* The amount of water increased (in this stage) in the urine, so intervals of urination reduced, it is called polyuria.
* Polydipsia :- Due to excess excretion of urine (Urination at short intervals) probability of dehydration is enhanced.
The patient feels thirsty, and there is a continuous loss of electrolytes from the body. Polyphagia : excessive
hunger
* Due to active and incomplete decomposition of fats in fatty tissues, ketone bodies are formed. These ketone
bodies are acetone, aceto acetic acid and beta hydroxy butyrate. Due to increased amount of these ketone
bodies ketoacidosis starts in the body. These bodies are poisonous.
* The combined effect of ketoacidosis, dehydration and hyperglycemia may cause diabet ic comma to the
patient, patient becomes unconscious and even may die.
* Insulin hormone is given to the patient by injection in this disease, Insulin given orally is not effective, because it
digest in the alimentary canal like protein.
* Now a days, oral insulin is used in following states :-
(A) IZS - Insulin Zinc Suspension.
(B) PZI - Protamine Zinc Insulin.
Hypersecretion of Insulin :–
Or – Hyperinsulinism :
* Due to hypersecretion of insulin amount of glucose decreases in blood. It is called hypoglycemia.
* In hypoglycemia stage, body cells take more and more glucose from blood So need of glucose for nervous
system, retina of eye, genital epithelium is not fulfilled, as a result of that patient looses its reproductive power
and sight. Due to excess irritation in brain cells, patient feels exhausted, unconsciousness, Cramps, and at last
patient may die.
* "Insulin shock" - At the time of physical labour or fasting, if a diabetic patient takes an insulin injection, sugar
level in blood reduces quickly up to 40 mg/100ml of blood. It is called insulin shock. The patient may be
unconscious or even may die.
(2) Glucagon :–
* This is secreted by -cells.
* It was discovered by "Kimball and Murlin"
* Glucagon is a hyperglycemia factor.
* It is made up of chain of polypeptide 29 amino acids.
* It is antagonistic to insulin. It is secreted by the gland, when sugar level of blood reduces.
* Glucagon hormone increase the amount of sugar (glucose) in blood.
* It stimulates gluconeogenesis in liver, as a result of that amount of glucose in the blood increased.
* It stimulates lipolysis of fats in fatty tissues.
* It decomposes the glycogen into glucose in liver i.e. it stimulates "glycogenolysis" in liver.
The secretion of insulin and glucagon is controlled by a limit control feed back. When amount of sugar is
*
increased in blood, then insulin is secreted by  -cells. As a result of it, when amount of glucose is reduced in
blood, then glucagon is secreted by -cells.
(3) S omatos tatin :–
It regulates the secretion of insulin and glucagon.
(4) Pancreatic Polypeptide (PP) :–
Its functions are unknown yet today perhaps it controls the absorption of food in intestine.
E 25
Pre-Medical
OTHER OR GANS WHICH SECR ETE HOR M ONES
(A) Kidney :– Main function of kidney is excretion, but it secretes some hormones also. These are as follows :-
1. Renin :– It is secreted by Juxtamedullary nephron. Renin hormone acts as protein digesting enzyme. It
digests a plasma protein called Angiotensinogen and converts it into Angiotensin-II.
Angiotensinogen Re
nin hormone
 Angiotensin- II.
. Renin hormone increases reabsorption of water and Na + ions in uriniferous tubules.
. It stimulates the secretion of aldosterone hormone from adrenal cortex.
2. Erythrogenin :– The hormone reacts with plasmaprotein (Globulin) and forms a new hormone
erythropoietin.
. Erythropoietin stimulates bone marrow to form RBCs.
3. Renomedullary prostaglandins :– It is the most active renal hormone. It makes relaxation in unstriated
muscles of blood vessels of kidneys. It enhances the excretion of Na+ ions by urine (diuretic effect), renal
vasodilation & decreases tubular reabsorption.
(B) Skin :– Due to the effect of ultraviolet rays of sunlight steroids like argosterol and cholesterol are changed into
argocalciferol and cholecalciferol vitamin D respectively in the skin, it reaches to its target organ by blood
stream.
* Vit. D is supposed to be a hormone. It acts as a co hormone with parathormone.
It helps in bone formation and teeth formation. It increases the absorption of calcium and phosphorus by
intestine.
* 'Rickets' disease is observed in children due to the deficiency of vit. D as a result of which bones become weak,
thin, deshaped and ugly.
* In adulthood, its deficiency causes Osteomalacia. Bones become weak and brittle.
(C) Gonads :–
(i) Testes (Male gonad) :–
. Leydig's cells or Interstitial cells of connective tissue of seminiferous tubules of testes secrete male hormones
androgens.
. Main androgens are testosterone and androsterone.
. These are steroid in nature.
. Testes also secrete inhibin/activin.
W OR K S OF TES T OS T ERONE
1. Testosterone is the main androgen (30 to 100 ng/ml).

2. This Hormone stimulates the development of secondary sex organ. Such as epididymus, vas deferens,
seminal vesicle.
3. This Hormone stimulates the number of sebaceous gland on the face which causes Acne & pimples.
4. It increases the development of beard & moustache.
5. It also stimulates the growth of hair on the upper limb, lower limb, thoracic, abdominal part, armpits &
near to the external genital organ.
(ii) Ovary (Female gonad) :–
. Estrogen/Oestrogen :– The hormone is secreted by the inner layer - theca interna of graafian follicles
. Estrogen includes estradiol, estrone and estriol.
26 E
Biology
. Estrogen is steroid in nature.
. This Hormone stimulates the development of sec. organ such as fallopian tube, uterus, vagina.
. Promotes the development of mammary gland.
. It develops the high pitch of voice which is also called as FEMININE voice.
. This Hormone removes the hair from face, upper & lower limb, thorax & abdominal part. But stimulates
growth of hair near the external genetial organ & armpits.
. It also develops the growth of skeletal muscle & bone.
. It increase the diameter of pelvic bone.
. It stimulates the blood formation but decreases the cholesterol level in the blood. It stimulates the rate of
growth of hair of head.
. It also changes the sexual behaviour, means attraction towards the male.
Cor pus Luteum :– (Temporary endocrine gland).
After ovulation graafian follicle changed into a yellow gland in the ovary, it is called corpus luteum. Regulation
and control of its production is done by LH. Corpus luteum is an endocrine gland. Following are the hormones
secreted by this.
(1) P rog e sterone :–
* The hormone stimulates the developmental characters of pregnancy.
* Due to the effect of this hormone, uterine wall endometrium become thick and blood circulation is
increased in it. Fats and glycogen are deposited in its cells.
* Mammary glands become highly developed, as a result of this breasts become enlarged.
* It helps in implantation of embryo in the uterine wall.
* The hormone maintains pregnancy, so it is also called "Pregnancy hormone" Progesterone inhibits
the contractions in uterine wall muscles, so it is also called "anti abortion hormone".
(2) Relaxin :–
Perhaps corpus luteum also secretes it, but it is secreted at the end of pregnancy/gestation period.
(3) E s t ro g e n
(4) I n hi b i n
(D) Placenta :– (Temporary endocrine gland).
Placenta connects the embryo and uterus of mother at the time of embryo development. It secretes some
hormones –
(i) Chorionic g onadotropin hormone (CGH)OR Huma n c horionic g onadotropi n (HCG)

It is a protein hormone. It helps to maintain the pregnancy and controls the secretory action of corpus
luteum.
. At the initial stage of pregnancy CGH or HCG is secreted in excess amount by placenta and it is excreted
by urine. At this stage presence of CGH of HCG in the urine is tested by urine test.
. It is a positive test for pregnancy. (Gravidex test)
. HCG or CGH is tested in urine test for pregnancy test.
(ii) P lac ental lac tog en or huma n c horionic s omatomammotropi n :–
It is also a protein hormone, and stimulates the mammary glands for milk production.
(iii) Estrogen :– It is a steroid, It controls extra development of breast during pregnancy.
(iv) Progesterone :– It is also a steroid. It controls the slow action of slowly abolishing corpus luteum and
maintains the pregnancy.
E 27
Pre-Medical
(v) Relaxin :- It is a protein hormone. At the time of parturition, it helps to expand the pubic symphysis of
pelvic girdle to facilitate the child birth in females.
SPECIAL POINT
* Heterocrine gland :- These are those endocrine glands which are involved in hormone secretion as well as
some other function eg. pancreas, gonads, placenta, GI mucosa and kidneys.
* In females prolactin induce maternalism i.e. strong emotional attachment.
* In male prolactin promotes paternalism i.e. protective attitudes towards family members and intensive food
gathering for the family.
* Contrary to thyroid dwarf (cretins), the pituitary dwarf have a normal mental development and proportionate
body.
* Sporadic cases of simple goitre (sporadic goitre) in a population are normally due to genetic defect.
* Muller organ and subneural gland is homologous to pituitary gland.
* Tropic hormone :- A hormone which stimulates another endocrine gland to secrete its hormone is called
trophic hormone.
* Simmond's disease :- This condition is due to atrophy of the anterior lobe of pituitary gland.
* Pheochromocytoma :- It is due to hypersecretion of adrenaline causes, high blood pressure, high level of
sugar in blood and urine, high metabolic rate, nervouseness and sweating.
* True sexual precocity :- True sexual precocity is early maturation of ovaries and testes with production, of ova
before the age of 9 years in girls, or sperm before 10 years in boys, occurs without evident cause.
* Sexual pseudoprecocity results from adrenal cortex, testes, ovary or from other sources, including extragonadial
tumours.
* Eunuchoidism :- Failure of testosterone secretion in male causes eunuchoidism. (A) Eunuch has a undeveloped
secondary sex organs like prostrate, seminal vesicle and penis (B) lacks external sex character such as beard,
moustache and low pitch and (C) does not produce sperm.
* Grow th hormone :- Stimulate the liver to form "S omatomedins " ("Insulin like growth factors"). This
somatomedins potent effect to bone growth.
* In heart CGMP has antagonistic effect to CAMP, CAMP mediate muscle contraction in response to adrenaline,
while CGMP slow down muscle contraction is response to acetylcholine (NCERT).
* CGMP used in second messanger in atrial natriuretic peptide and nitric oxide.
* Branch of hypophyseal artery & hypophyseal portal vein form a network of blood capillaries which is called as
c ircle of Wil lis .

* In human, mid lobe is ill developed or membrane like, while mid lobe is absent in elephant & Whale.
* Three types of glandular cells are found in Adenohypophysis.
1. Basophils  They are large cells & found in the peripheral part of gland. They are more in number.
2. Acidophil  They are small in size & found in the central part of pituitary gland.
3. Neutrophils  They are smallest in size and are found in scattered form . They are minimum in number.
28 E
Biology
Hormones which always remain in tissue fluid :–
There are some hormones which never reach upto blood stream but always remain in ECF.
These are as follows :-
(1) Neurohormone :–
These are secreted in the nodes of axons of nerve cells. Acetylcholine and Norepinephrine are the main
neurohormones.
(2) Prostaglandin :– These are fatty acids. These are most active substances among all the known substances.
* Prostaglandin are of so many types. Kidneys, gonads, seminal vesicles, thymus, brain etc. organs and their cells
secrete these hormones in ECF.
* These prostaglandins are first of all observed in semen of man. These stimulate contraction of unstriated muscles.
* These prostaglandins are secreted by seminal vesicles and reach upto vagina of female through semen of male,
and then these activate the muscles of uterus of female.
(3) Kinins :– These are chemicals which are secreted by any organ of body at the time of chemical change in ECF,
and reduce the B.P. by expanding blood vessels. These also reduce the time of blood clotting.
Kinins are also called as "Firstaid hormone".
(4) Pheromones or Ectohormones :–
* The term "Pheromone" was coined by Karlson and Butenandt.
* These are secreted by exocrine glands. These are also called "Samio- chemical".
* These chemicals are secreted by animals and effect the other animal's behaviour and mode of life of the same
species.
* Just like hormones, their target place is far from place of origin.
* first of all, pheromone Bombicol was studied. It is pheromone of silk moth. Pheromones are volatile in nature,
and travel through air from place to place.
Pheromones are of 3 types :-
(1) Sex - Pheromone :–
These attract male and female animals for reproduction. Female silk moth secretes Bombicol or Gyplure
from its body which attracts male for mating.
(a) Muskone :– It is secreted by Musk - deers.
(b) Civetone :– It is secreted by cats.
(2) Ag gregation pheromone :–
This pheromone is secreted by one member of social insects and pheromone sends messages to other
members of that society. Thus helps in aggregation. e.g. :- Geradial pheromone in honeybee.
(3) Alarm pheromones :–
These pheromones are secreted by one member of the insect species and alarm the other members of
the same species. e.g :- Secretion of formic acid in ants insects etc.
E 29

Endocrine Glands: Biology

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Endocrine Glands: Biology

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Biology

Difference s bet ween Ner vous a nd Endocri ne Coor di nat ion

Ner vous Co- or di nat ion Endoc ri ne Co-or di nat ion

1. Information passes as electrical impulses 1. Information passes as a chemical substance

* Hormones are soluble in water and are easily diffusible in tissues.

* Hormones are non- antigenic & non species specific substances.

Difference s bet ween Hormone & Enz yme

Horm one s Enzymes

disorders. reactions steadily increase with an increase

Differenc e s bet ween Hormone & Vitamins

Horm one s Vitami ns

M ECHANISM OF HOR M ONAL R EACTIONS

MECHANISM OF HORMONE –– Two t ype s

transpor t of i ns uli n hormone, insulin Extracellular   insulin binding site

receptor is found in cell membrane, which

into the cytoplasm of the cell. The intra

Insulin receptor substrate

Adrenaline Inactive G-protein

Active Adenylate Cyclase

Same CAMP mechanism transduces G-protein act.

PIP2(a component of the

pathway Stored within organelles

gland is called as Chalones.

Ketogenic  The hormone, which mainly affect the fat metabolism.

 = Vasopressin Systemic venous outflow

* Superior branc h of hypophys eal artery supplies blood to the hypothalamus .

HOR M ONES SECR ETED B Y AD ENOHY POPHY SIS

* Dwarfism due to the defect of pituitary is called Ateliosis.

* T.S.H is secreted by basophil cells. (Thyrotroph cell).

3. ADRENO CORTICO TROPHIC HORMONE OR CORTICOTROPINE [ACTH] :–

4. FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE [FSH] :–

5. LUTEINIZING HORMONE [LH OR ICSH] OR INTERSTITIAL CELL STIMUL ATING `HORMONE :–

HORMONE RELE ASING FACTORS OF HYPOTHALA MUS :–

Luteinising hormone releasing factor [LHRF] :– It stimulates the secretion of LH.

* Hypersecretion of ADH causes dilution of blood and increases

THY R OID GLAND

It is the largest endocrine gland in the body . This is

membrane of the follicle & these cells secrete calcitonin

* Thyroxine stimulates the metamorphosis of tadpole larva in amphibians.

1. Hyposecretion of thyroid or Hypothyroidism :–

I Physical II Mental III Sexual

Idiocy/Imbecelity (i) infantile sex

Grave's Disease Plummer's Disease

Para follicular c ells or C–cells :–

PAR ATH Y ROID GL AND

Each 100 ml of blood contains 12 mg of Ca++.

About 1 kg of calcium is found in an adult man.

* Parathormone maintains the activity of muscles.

C–Cells /P ara–follic ular c ells P ara Thyroid Gland

Fig. : Mic roc opic str uc ture of adrenal gla nd

* It weights about 4 - 6 gm in man.

2. Middle zone or Zona fasc iculata :-

* Sex hormones secreted by adrenals are called gonadocorticoids.

So it is also known as life-saving hormone.

* ACTH controls very little or even does not control the

* Pituitary gland does not control the secretion of adrenal

* The amount of cortisol and ACTH in blood is maximum

Control of ACTH secretion

IRREGULAR SECRETION OF ADRENAL HORMONE :–

Hormone s and funct ions of thymus gland :-

(1) This hormone helps in immune system of the body.

between the acini, these small endocrine glands,