PROJECT BASED LEARNING MATERIAL

HOW TO USE THIS PROJECT BASED LEARNING MATERIAL

Welcome to the module

“Overhaul Engine and Its Associated Components”.
This module contains training materials and activities for you to complete. The unit of competency
“Overhauling Engine and Its Associated Components” contains knowledge, skills and attitudes
required for Vehicle Servicing. It is one of the Core Modules at National Certificate Level II.
You are required to go through a series of learning activities in order to complete each Learning
outcome of the module. In each learning outcome there are Information Sheets, Resource Sheets and
reference materials for further reading to help you better understand the required activities. Follow
these activities on your own and answer the self-check at the end of each learning outcome and
compare your answer with the feedback provided. Check your work honestly. If you have questions,
please don’t hesitate to ask your facilitator for assistance.
Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL)
You may already have some or most of the knowledge and skills covered in this module because you
have:
 been working for sometime
 Already completed training in this area

If you can demonstrate to your trainer that you are competent in a particular skill or skills, talk to
him/her about having them formally recognized so you don’t have to do the same training again. If
you have qualifications or Certificates of Competency from previous trainings, show them to your
trainer. If the skills you acquired are still relevant to this module, they may become part of the
evidence you can present for RPL.
At the end of this learning material is a Learner’s Diary, use this diary to record important dates, jobs
undertaken and other workplace events that will assist you in providing further details to your
trainer or assessors. A Record of Achievement is also provided for your trainer to complete once you
completed the module.
This learning material was prepared to help you achieve the required competency in Servicing
Lubricating System. This will be the source of information for you to acquire the knowledge and skills
in this particular trade independently and at your own pace with minimum supervision or help from
your instructor.
In doing the activities to complete the requirements of this module, please be guided by the following:
 Talk to your trainer and agree on how you will both organize the training under this
Module. Read through the module carefully. It is divided into sections which cover all the
 Skills and knowledge you need to successfully complete.
 Work through all information and complete the activities in each section. Read the
Information sheets and complete the self-checks provided. Suggested references are
Included to supplement the materials provided in this module.
Most probably your trainer will also be your supervisor or manager. He/she is there to
 Support you and show you the correct way to do things. Ask for help.
 Your trainer will tell you about the important things you need to consider when you are
Completing the activities and it is important that you listen and take notes.
 You will be given plenty of opportunities to ask questions and practice on the job. Make
Sure you practice your new skills during regular work shifts. This way you will improve
Both your speed and memory and also your confidence.
 Talk to more experienced work mates and ask for their guidance.
 Use self-check questions at the end of each section to test your own progress.
 When you are ready, ask your trainer to watch you perform the activities outlined in this
Module.
 As you work through the activities, ask for written feedback on your progress. Your
Trainer keeps feedback/pre-assessment reports for this reason. When you have
completed this learning material and feel confident that you had sufficient knowledge and
Skills, your trainer will arrange an appointment with a registered assessor to assess you.
The results of the assessment will be recorded in your Competency Achievement
Record

Instruction Sheet
This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following
content coverage and topics –
 Analyze suspension, brake and steering system
 Identify nature and scope of work
 WHS requirement
 Source procedures and information
 Select and prepare Method options
 Source and support technical and/or measurement
 Observe warnings

This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcome stated in the cover page. Specifically,
upon completion of this Learning Guide, you will be able to –
 The suspension, brake and steering system fitted to the vehicle are analyzed
 Nature and scope of work requirements are identified and confirmed
  WHS requirements, including individual state/territory regulatory requirements and personal
protection needs are observed throughout the work
 Procedures and information such as workshop manuals and specifications, and tooling, are
sourced
 Method options are analyzed and those most appropriate to the circumstances are selected and
prepared
 Technical and/or measurement requirements for chassis systems are sourced and support
equipment is identified and prepared
 Warnings in relation to working with wheeled are observed

Learning Instructions:
Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.
Follow the instructions described in number 3 to 6.
Read the information written in the “Information Sheets 1, Information Sheets 2, Information Sheets 3,
Information Sheets 4, Information Sheets 5, Information Sheets 6 and Information Sheets 7”. Try to
understand what are being discussed. Ask you teacher for assistance if you have hard time
understanding them. Accomplish the “Self-check and Ask from your teacher the key to correction
(key answers) or you can request your teacher to correct your work. (You are to get the key answer
only after you finished answering the Self-check).
If you earned a satisfactory evaluation proceed to “Information Sheet 2”. However, if your rating is
unsatisfactory, see your teacher for further instructions or go back to Learning Activity #1.
 Information Sheet-1
Automotive Engine Fundamentals

Introduction
Engines are prime movers that convert the energy of running water, wind and heat into a more useful
form of energy. Since all automobiles use heat energy of the fuel into mechanical energy, we will
limit our discussion on heat engines.

Heat engines are of two general types, External Combustion Engines (ECE) and Internal
Combustion Engines (ICE). The word combustion is another term for burning. Thus an external
combustion engine uses energy from fuel burned outside the engine, while internal combustion engine
uses energy obtained by burning fuel inside the engine itself. A steam engine is an example of an
external combustion engine. In a steam engine the fuel can be burned almost anywhere as long as it
turns water into steam, which can be directed into the cylinder. This is external combustion. Diesel
and gasoline engines are both classified as internal combustion engines. Here the fuel is taken into
the cylinder and burned inside the combustion chamber which is part of the cylinder.
The engines in automobiles are all internal combustion engines. Internal combustion engines can be of
two types, reciprocating and rotary. The type used in most automobiles is the reciprocating or
piston engine. In this engine, pistons move up and down, or reciprocate. The other kind of IC engine
is the rotary type, in which rotors rotate or turn.

2.1 Reciprocating or Piston type Engines

2.1.1 Basic Engine Components and Operation
The typical automotive engine is made up of several essential components. These components are
designed to provide efficient and reliable engine operation. The basic components in a four – stroke –
cycle automobile engine include the following:
Cylinder block
Crankshaft
Pistons
Piston rings
Connecting rods
Piston pin
Cylinder head
Valve train (includes valves and valve operating mechanism).
Figure 2.1 Basic components of four stroke cycle engines Figure 2.2 Basic components of single cylinder engine

Both the spark ignition and the compression ignition engines are very much alike. They both have
pistons that move up and down or reciprocate in cylinders. Most automotive engines have four, six, or
eight cylinders. Since the same actions take place in each cylinder, let us study one cylinder to see
what makes the engine run. (Figure 2.2).
The cylinder is open only at lower end and is fitted with a piston having a solid top, or head. The
piston is free to travel up and down in the cylinder but must fit well enough to provide a gas tight seal.
The seal is provided by the piston rings. Below the cylinder is the crankcase which houses a pair of
bearings, called main bearings that support the crankshaft. A connecting rod, connecting the piston
to the crankshaft, is attached to the piston by a piston pin and to the crankshaft crank by a crank pin.
The connecting rod is free to oscillate or move back and forth on the piston pin, and the crank pin is
free to turn in the connecting rod bearing. The flywheel is mounted at one end of the crankshaft to
provide a rotation inertia for the engine. (Figure 2.3).
2.1.1.1 Engine Operating Cycles
The movement of the piston from the top of the cylinder to the bottom, or from bottom to top is called
a stroke. The top of a stroke is Top Dead Center (TDC). The bottom of a stroke is Bottom Dead
Center (BDC). Each stroke of the piston turns the crankshaft one-half revolution, or 180 degrees,
(figure 2.4). Two piston stokes turn the crankshaft 360 degrees or one complete revolution. The term
revolutions per minute (r/min) indicates the number of revolutions that the crankshaft makes in one
minute.
The engine operation cycle is the process of drawing air and fuel into a cylinder, compressing it,
burning it to develop power, and exhausting the burned gases. In a reciprocating engine, an operating
cycle is measured in the number of piston stokes needed for one complete cycle. If an engine requires
only two stokes to complete the cycle, it is called two stoke cycle engine. If the engine requires 4
strokes to complete the cycle, it is called a four stoke cycle engine. Most gasoline and diesel
automobile engines operate on a four stoke cycle principle.

2.1.1.2 Basic Piston Engine Operation

There are two kinds of piston engines. Spark ignition and compression ignition. The differences
between the two are:
a) The type of fuel used
b) The way of the fuel gets into the cylinder
c) The way the fuel is ignited.
The spark ignition engine uses a highly volatile fuel, which turns to vapor easily, such as gasoline. The
fuel is mixed with air before it enters the engine cylinders. The fuel turns into a vapor and mixes with
air to form a combustible air- fuel mixture. This mixture then enters the cylinders and is compressed.
Next, an electric spark, produced by the ignition system burns the compressed air- fuel mixture.

In the compression ignition, or diesel, engine the fuel is mixed with the air after the air enters the
engine cylinders. Air alone is taken into the cylinder. Then it is compressed. The temperature goes
up. Then the fuel is injected (sprayed) into the engine cylinder. The hot air or heat of compression
ignites the fuel. This is why the diesel engine is called a compression ignition engine.

In both types of engines, when the fuels burn inside the engine cylinder, the chemical energy stored in
the fuel is converted into heat energy. The heat energy is converted into mechanical energy by the
expansion of gases against pistons. The movement of the pistons is carried by connecting rods to the
engine crankshaft. The crankshaft thus made to rotate. The rotary motion is carried through the power
train to the vehicle wheel thereby rotating the wheels and moving the vehicle.
2.1.1.2.1 Four – Stroke Cycle Gasoline Engine Operation
The four- stroke cycle consists of 4 piston stokes: two piston strokes up and two piston strokes down.
Each stoke is named after its principal action: intake, compression, power, and exhaust. Here is how
they work in a four- stroke gasoline engine (figure 2.5).

Figure 2.5 Four strokes of gasoline engine

1. Intake Stroke
Starting at the top of its stroke (TDC), the piston moves down. This increases the available cylinder
volume and creates a low-pressure area, or vacuum, in the cylinder. The vacuum allows atmospheric
pressure to force air into the engine. This draws a vaporized air- fuel mixture into the cylinder though
an open intake valve. The exhaust valve remains closed during this stroke and the crankshaft turns
though half a revolution, figure 2.5.
2. Compression Stroke
As the piston reaches the bottom of the intake stroke, the intake valve closes. Then the piston moves
up to compress the air fuel mixture into the combustion chamber. Compression develops high energy
in a small place. This increases the pressure above atmospheric pressure. This pressure is called
compression pressure and depending on the type of engine, it usually ranges between 850 and 1000
KPa. The amount that the mixture is compressed is called compression ratio. Compression ratio for
gasoline engines ranges between 6:1 to 10:1. (Compression ratio will be discussed later). The
crankshaft has now completed one revolution, figure 2.5.
3. Power Stroke
As the piston nears top dead center of the compression stoke, the spark plug fires to ignite the air fuel
mixture. As the mixture burns in the confined space of the combustion chamber, it releases its energy
and drives the piston down ward on the power stroke, figure 2.5. It is only during this stroke that the
engine develops mechanical power. The pressure increase is approximately five times greater than the
compression pressure and therefore is between 4200 and 4900 KPa.
4. Exhaust Stroke
Near the bottom of the power stroke, the exhaust valve opens. The exhaust valve opens slightly before
BDC so that pressure in the cylinder will help to expel exhaust gases. At bottom dead center, the
piston starts back up on the exhaust stroke to force the burned air fuel mixture out of the cylinder. As
the piston nears the top of the exhaust stoke, the exhaust valve closes and the cycle starts over with
another down ward intake stroke.
The four- stroke cycle is repeated continuously in every cylinder of an engine as long as it is running.
Each stroke for one piston requires 180 degrees of crankshaft rotation. Therefore, four strokes require
720 degrees, or two revolutions of the crankshaft.

2.1.1.2.2 Multi cylinder Engines

The simple one- cylinder engine that has been described would not be satisfactory for operation of the
modern automobile. As we have already mentioned, nowadays most automobiles use four -cylinder,
six- cylinder, or eight- cylinder engines.

For a multi cylinder engine to run uniformly, the power stokes of its cylinders must be spaced
rotationally at one and the same crank angle (i.e. they must occur at regular intervals, called the firing
or power intervals).
To find this angle, the duration of the engine cycle, expressed in degrees of crankshaft rotation is
divided by the number of the engine cylinders.

720 0 Where N - power or firing interval

N= I - number of cylinders
I
7200 - Duration of 1 cycle of 4-stroke cycle engine.

Example:
Determine the power intervals of 4-, 6-, and 8 – cylinder engines.
0
720
0
720
0
N 8= 720 =900
N 4= =1800 N 6= =1200
4 , 6 , 8
As can be seen from the example, the greater the number of cylinders the engine has, the shorter the
interval between the power strokes. In six cylinder and eight cylinder engines the second power stoke
starts before the first power stoke finishes. This overlap of power stokes is known as power lap.
Most 4-, 6- and 8- cylinder engines have the power intervals of 180 -120- and 90- degrees, as
discussed in the above paragraph.
However, V-6 engines can have several different power intervals. A V-6 engine with a 60-degree
angle between cylinder banks has a 120-degree power interval, the same as an in line 6-cylinder
engine. A 90- degree V-6 can have 120 – degree power intervals if the crankshaft journals are split. If
the 90- degree V-6 engine has journals that are not split, then their power intervals are 90- and 150-
degrees alternately. Other 90- degree V – 6 engines have split journals that create alternate 108 – and
132- degree intervals. V- 12 engines usually have 60 – degree blocks and 60 – degree power interval.
Regardless of the number of cylinders in an engine, each cylinder operates as a single self- contained
unit, following the basic four stroke-cycle principle. Each unit is connected to a common crankshaft
and uses a common fuel, exhaust and ignition systems.

2.1.1.2.3 Four-Stroke- Cycle Diesel Engine Operation

Diesel engines are similar in construction to gasoline engines, except that they are generally heavier in
construction in order to withstand the higher pressure resulting from the higher compression ratios
used. These compression ratios may be as high as bout 22 to 1. When air is compressed this much,
its, temperature goes as high as 6000C.
In diesel engine, only air enters the cylinder on the intake stroke and only air is compressed on the
compression stroke. (Figure 2.6). At the proper time, fuel is sprayed into the heated air under
pressure. The heat of compression ignites the fuel, and the air fuel mixture then burns the same as it
does in a gasoline engine, to produce power. The injection of fuel into the cylinder must be “timed” in
accordance with engine speed and load in the same way as the spark at the spark plug of a gasoline
engine must be “timed”.

Figure 2.6 Four strokes of diesel engine

Four- stroke- cycle diesel engines follow the same cycle as a gasoline engine and use both intake and
exhaust valves.
2.1.1.3 Two – Stoke- Cycle Engines
The two-stoke – cycle engines perform an intake and compression, power and exhaust in just one
revolution (360 degrees) of the crankshaft. The intake and compression combined in one storke and
power and exhaust combined in another stoke. Here is how they work in a two- stroke gasoline
engine.

A. Two- Stork – Cycle Gasoline Engine Operation

The two-stroke cycle engine has no valves. The intake of the air fuel mixture and the exhaust of the
burnt gases are effected through ports cut in the cylinder wall, which are timely opened and closed by
the moving piston. (Figure 2.7).

As piston moves upwards, it closes exhaust ports in the cylinder wall, as a result of which final
compression of the combustible charge transferred earlier in the stroke from sealed crank chamber to
the cylinder takes place above the advancing piston. At the same time, a fresh charge of fuel and air is
taken from carburetor into crank chamber through intake ports, as a result of the vacuum produced
below the piston as it moves towards the end of its stroke.

Figure 2.7 Two- stroke gasoline engine operation

As the piston nears TDC, a spark jumps across the points of spark plug and the air fuel mixture is
ignited. This marks the end of the first (intake) and compression stroke.
Under the pressure of the expanding gases the piston moves downwards on its power stroke which
continues until the exhaust ports are opened and the evacuation of the exhaust gases from the cylinder
commences.
As the piston moves downwards the previously induced charge of air fuel mixture trapped in the crank
chamber beneath the advancing piston is partially compressed. At the end of the second (power and
exhaust) stroke, the piston opens transfer port and the partially compressed charge of air fuel mixture
previously trapped in the crank chamber enters the cylinder, expelling the exhaust gases out of it. The
cylinder is simultaneously scavenged and filled with a fresh air fuel mixture, the latter being partially
lost together with the exhaust gases leaving the cylinder. Some engines have dome- shaped piston to
reduce the loss of this air fuel mixture figure 2.8. Thus the working cycle of the engine is completed
in two strokes of the piston.

Figure 2.8 Dome-shaped piston

Two-stroke gasoline engines have no separate lubricating system. For lubrication of parts of the
engine, lubricating oil is added into the fuel with the proportion such as 1:20 in volume. In some
engines the oil is injected intermittently into the engine.

B. Two- Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine Operation

In a two-stroke cycle diesel engine (figure 2.9) a blower, or rotary air pump, is used to create an initial
pressure on the incoming air. The piston serves as a valve for the intake ports through which the air
enters the cylinder. There is an exhaust valve in the top of the cylinder. The burned gases are forced
past the exhaust valve after it opens, and the piston opens the intake ports. Now fresh air can sweep
any remaining exhaust gases from the cylinder and out of the exhaust port. This is called scavenging
the cylinder.
 Figure 2.9 Two- stroke diesel engine operation

As the piston moves upward, it closes off the intake ports, and the exhaust valve closes. The air
trapped in the cylinder becomes highly compressed as the piston moves up to TDC. Now fuel is
injected into the cylinder, and the power stroke takes place.

2.1.2 Firing Order and Cylinder Numbering

As we have seen, power interval is the amount of crankshaft rotation between ignitions in each
cylinder. Firing order is the sequence in which ignition occurs in the various cylinders. The
crankshaft throws are arranged in a particular order so that the cylinders fire at regular intervals and
each cylinder fires once every 720 degrees. This crankshaft throw arrangement creates the firing
order, and it varies depending on the number of cylinders and the engine block design.
Engine cylinders are numbered for identification, but they usually don’t fire in cylinder number order.
In- line engine cylinders are numbered form front, or the end opposite the flywheel, to rear. For an in-
line 4- cylinder engine, the crankshaft or journals are offset and the cylinders are numbered as shown.
(figure 2.10)

Figure 2.10 In-line 4 and 6 cylinder engines

The cylinders must fire at 180-degree intervals, so the firing order must be 1-3-4-2 (most common) or
1-2-4-3. For an in-line 6- cylinder engine, the rod journals are arranged and the cylinders are
numbered as shown (figure 2.10). All in- line 6 – cylinder engines have a firing order 1-5-3-6-2-4.

Most V- type engines have the cylinder number patterns and firing orders as shown in figure 2.11.
Odd numbered cylinders are on the left bank viewed form the flywheel end; even- numbered cylinders
are on the right. Most such V-type engines have firing orders 1-6-5-4-3-2 for V-6 and 1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2
for V-8 engines.

Figure 2.11 V-8 Engine cylinder numbering Figure 2.12 V-6 and V-8 Engine firing orders
Other V- type engines have the number 1 cylinder at the right front. Cylinder numbers follow in order
down the right bank and then continue from front to rear on the left. (figure 2.12). Fortunately, most
carmakers cast the firing order of an engine on the intake manifold to avoid confusion during engine
service.

2.1.3 Pair Cylinders

Notice in figure 2.10 (above) that the crankshaft throws for cylinder 1 and 4 of a 4-cylinder engine are
in the same position, as are the throws for cylinder 2 and 3. In an in-line 6- cylinder engine, figure
2.10 (above) , the throws for cylinder 1 and 6, 3 and 4, and 2 and 5 share common positions.
Cylinders with crank throws in the same position in relation to firing order are called pair cylinders or
running mates. Although the pistons are at TDC simultaneously, they are 360 degree apart in firing
order. When piston 1 of a 4- cylinder engine is at TDC at the start of the power stroke, piston 4 is at
TDC at the start of its intake stoke.

Visualizing cylinders that are pair in v-type engine is a bit more difficult because you must account of
the angle between cylinder banks. In the v-8 engine in figure 2.11, cylinders 1 and 6, 8 and 5, 4 and 7,
and 3 and 2 are pair cylinders because you must add the 900 cylinder angle to the crankshaft angle.
You can determine cylinder pairs in any engine from its firing order. Simply take the first half of the
firing order and write it above the second half of the firing order.
Example
1. What are the pair cylinders of the firing order 1-8-4-3-6-5-7-2?
 1−8−4−3
6−5−7−2
Therefore the pair cylinders are 1 and 6, 8 and 5, 4 and 7, and 3 and 2.
2. What are the pair cylinders of the firing orders 1-5-3-6-2-4?
1−5−3
6−2−4
The pair cylinders are 1 and 6, 5 and 2, and 3 and 4.
Knowing the pair cylinders is useful when you adjust mechanical valve lifter and for ignition timing
on some engines as you will learn when you study these subjects.

2.1.4 Engine Valve Timing

During the discussion of the four- stroke cycle principle, it was assumed that the valves opened and
closed at TDC or BDC and that a cycle was 720 0 in length. In practice, the valves do not open and
close on the dead centers, but open before or close after dead center is reached.
The charging of the stroke length increases volumetric efficiency and engine power. This may seem
odd at first, as the power stroke is shortened, for instant, by 450 (these degrees are different for
different engines). Figure 2.13. However, by the time the power stroke reaches 45 0 before BDC, the
pressure in the cylinder has dropped considerably, and the crankshaft throw is not in apposition to
effectively produce turning effort. It is more advantageous, therefore, to open the exhaust valve earlier
and allow the remaining pressure to force the exhaust gases through the exhaust system. Leaving the
exhaust valve for 50 after TDC takes advantage of inertia of the moving gases to further remove
exhaust gases form the cylinder.

Figure 2.13 Valve timing diagram

As the exhaust gases rush past the area of the intake valve, they create a low pressure in that area.
Opening the intake valve 50 before TDC of the intake stroke utilizes this low pressure to start the air
fuel mixture flowing into the cylinder. Leaving the intake valve open for 450 after BDC also makes
use of the inertia of the moving gases to fill the cylinder more completely. The more air fuel mixture
that enters the cylinder on the intake stroke, the higher the volumetric efficiency and the more power
produced.
The opening of the valve before either TDC or BDC is called Valve Lead. The closing of a valve
after TDC or BDC is called Valve Lag. When the valves are open at the same time between the
exhaust and intake stokes, is called Valve Lap, or Valve Overlap.
2.2 Classification of Internal Combustion Engines
There are a variety of internal combustion engines of which some are similar to each other. Even
those, which are similar, have their various components arranged in different ways to result in a
similar operation. The general considerations for classification of an automobile internal combustion
engines are as given under.
1. By the number of cylinders 5. By the type of cycle
2. By the arrangement of cylinders 6. By the type of fuel used
3. By the type of valve arrangement 7. By the method of ignition
4. By the type of cooling system
2.2.1 Classification by Number and Arrangement of Cylinders
Most engines have, as we have explained earlier, four, six or eight cylinders. But manufacturers offer
a greater variety including three, four, five, six, eight and twelve cylinders (figure 2.14).

Figure 2.14 Number and arrangement of cylinders

Cylinders can be arranged in several ways figure 2.15.

 Figure 2.15 Cylinder arrangements
1. In- line
2. V- type
3. Horizontal opposed
4. Radial type
Only the first three have been used for automotive engines

2.2.1.1 Four- Cylinder In-Line Engines

Four cylinder in-line engines have the cylinders cast vertically in a single row by three or four
bearings, and the throws are set 1800 apart.

2.2.1.2 Six- Cylinder In-Line Engines

Six cylinder in-line engines have the cylinders cast in the engine block in a single row, Figure 2.16.
The cylinders are placed either vertically or at an angle of 30 0 from the vertical (slant). The
crankshaft, supported by three or more main bearings, has the throws placed 1200 apart.

Figure 2.16 6 cylinder in line engine Figure 2.17 Four - Cylinder Horizontally Opposed Engine

2.2.1.3 Four- And Six- Cylinder Horizontally Opposed Engines

These engines have the cylinders in two rows, 180 0 apart, Figure 2.17. The cylinders are individual
cast iron sleeves and are attached in groups of two or three to an aluminum cylinder head. The heads
contain integral valve ports, combustion chambers, and valves for each cylinder. The cylinders are
attached to each side of the aluminum crankcase, which can be split in to halves. The crankcase
supports the camshaft and the crankshaft, the latter being mounted on four main bearings. The
crankshaft throws and the camshaft are arranged to give a firing order of 1-4-3-2 for four-cylinder
engine and 1-4-5-2-3-6 for the six-cylinder engine.

2.2.1.4 V- 4 Engines
The V-4 engine has two rows of two cylinders each, set at an angle, or a V, to each other. The
crankshaft has only two cranks. Connecting rods from opposing cylinders in the two rows are attached
to the same crank pin. Therefore, each crankpin has two connecting rods attached to it. Figure 2.20
shows the internal moving parts of a V-4 engine. This type of engine is difficult to balance with
counter- weights on the crankshaft. The engine in figure 2.18 is balanced by a balance shaft that turns
in a direction opposite to the crankshaft.

Figure 2.18 V-4 engine Figure 2.19 V-6 engines

2.2.1.5 V- 6 Engines
V-6 cylinder engines have two banks of three cylinders set at an angle of 600 to each other, figure 2.19.
The crankshaft has four main bearings.

2.2.1.6 V- 8 Engines
V-8 engines have two banks of four cylinders each, usually set at an angle of 90 0 to each other. The
crankshaft is supported by four main bearings. The connecting rods are attached in pairs, one from
each bank, to the crank pins. Because of the wide variety of cylinder – numbering systems used, the
firing orders vary greatly.

2.2.1.7 V- Type Engines Versus In Line Engines

The eight-cylinder in-line engine is no longer used in automobiles because of its long length, its
tendency to flex or bend, and its tendency to produce torsional vibrations unless the crankshafts and
the engine block are extremely heavy. The V-8 engine, on the other hand, is short in length, the
engine block is very rigid, and it uses a short but heavy crankshafts.
The more rigid V-8 engine permits higher compression ratios, combustion pressures, and running
speeds with less flexing of the crankshaft and engine block. The shorter V-8 block permits larger
passenger compartments or shorter wheel- base vehicles without reducing the passenger- compartment
size. Since the carburetor and other engine parts are placed between the two cylinders banks, the hood
line can be lower.

2.2.2 Classification by Valve Arrangements

The intake and exhaust valves can be arranged in various ways in the cylinder head or block. Four
types of valve arrangements have been used in automobile engines, the L, I, F and T figure 2.20 each
derived its name because of its similarity to the different letters. For many years, up to the mid 1950s,
the L- head engine was the most popular type, but it lost its popularity because its larger combustion
chamber made it very difficult to produce the high compression ratio’s, which are required for today’s
powerful engines. Today most engines are of the I- head types.

2.2.3 Classification by cooling system

Two general types of cooling system are used; Liquid Cooling and Air Cooling the former system is
the most popular. A complete discussion of the construction, operation and service of the cooling
system will be discussed later.

2.2.4 Classification by Cycle

Internal combustion engines may be of the two-stroke-cycle or the four-stroke- cycle design. As we
have seen, in four-stroke- cycle engine, the complete cycle requires four piston strokes (intake,
compression power and exhaust). In the two-stroke-cycle engine, the intake and compression strokes,
and the power and exhaust strokes, are combined. This permits the engine to produce a power stroke
every two-piston strokes, or every crankshaft rotation.

2.2.5 Classification by Fuel

Internal combustion engines may be designed to use gasoline, diesel fuel oil, or LPG (Liquefied
petroleum Gas).

2.2.6 Classification by Method of Ignition

Gasoline engines use the spark (electrical) ignition system. The electrical ignition system causes a
spark across the spark plug electrodes in the cylinder at the end of the compression stroke, which
ignites the vaporized air-fuel mixture.
Diesel engines use the heat from compression of the air to ignite the fuel when it is injected into the
cylinder at the end of the compression stroke. Since diesel engine compression ratios are much higher
than gasoline engine compression ratios, sufficient heat is generated by compressing the air to
immediately ignite the fuel upon injection.

2.3 Engine Measurements and Performance

In order to understand the operation of an internal- combustion engine, it is necessary to become
familiar with a number of terms, which describe its mechanical, operational, and power features.

2.3.1 Engine Displacement

2.3.1.1 Basic measurements
A. Bore is the inside diameter of the cylinder, usually measured in millimeters.
B. Stroke is the distance in millimeters traveled by the piston in its movement from TDC (Top
Dead Center) to BDC (Bottom Dead Center), figure 2.21. The bore is always stated first.

C. Relationship of Bore and Stroke

Early automobile engines were designed with a small bore and a long stroke. This type of construction
had high friction losses because of the length of the stroke, and greater inertia and centrifugal loads on
the crankshaft bearings.
In the modern automobile engine the bore is usually larger than the stroke and it is referred to as an
“over square” engine. A “square” engine is one in which the bore and stroke measurements are the
same. The over square engine not only reduces frictional losses and reduces inertial and centrifugal
forces; it also permits lower engine hood body design.
Despite the advantages of the shorter- stroke, over square engine, concern for atmospheric pollution
has forced automobile manufacturers to lengthen the stroke on some engines. The longer stroke
provides more burning time for better combustion, so fewer pollutants are emitted.
D. Throw
Throw is the distance in millimeters from the center of the crankshaft main bearing to the center of the
crank pin, or connecting rod bearing. The length of the throw is equal to one-half of the stroke, figure
2.22.

E. Piston Displacement
Poston displacement (PD) for one cylinder refers to the volume that the piston displaces as it travels
from BDC to TDC and is expressed in cubic centimeter (cc) or in liters. To calculate piston
displacement for one cylinder, the following formula is used.
π x bore x stroke
PD= ,c.c .
4
Bore and stroke are in cm.
To determine engine displacement, multiply the displacement of one cylinder by the total number of
engine cylinders:
PDT =  x bore2 x stroke x number of cylinders
4
Where PDT – piston displacement of an engine
Example:
Calculate the engine displacement of 6-cylinder engine having 75 x 70 mm cylinder.
PDT =  x bore2 x stroke x number of cylinders
4
= 3.14 x (7.5)2 x 7 x 6
4
PDT = 1854.56 cc
F. Compression Ratio (CR)
Engine compression ratio is the ratio of total cylinder volume (piston at BDC) to combustion chamber
volume (piston at TDC). Combustion chamber volume is also called clearance volume. (Figure 2.23).
Therefore, the compression ratio is total cylinder volume (TV) divided by clearance volume (CV).

Figure 2.23 Compression ratio of an engine

TV
CR=
CV

Compression ratio can also be calculated using the piston displacement and clearance volume. As we
have seen, the volume between BDC and TDC is piston displacement (PD). Therefore:

TV = PD + CV………….(i)
TV
And also CR = CV …...(ii)
If we substitute TV in (i) in (ii). We get
 PD+CV PD
CR= +1
CR = CV  CV
Example:
The cylinder of one engine has a total volume of 694 cc. And a clearance volume of 73 cc. Calculate
the compression ratio.
TV 694 cc
CR= =9 .5
CV = 73 cc CR = 9.5: 1
An engine’s compression ratio indicates how tightly the fuel and air mixture is squeezed into the
combustion chamber during the piston’s compression stroke. Compressing more fuel and air into the
combustion chamber improves the engine’s performance because combustion occurs faster with higher
compression because fuel molecules are packed more tightly and the combustion flame travels fast.

Most gasoline engines, however, are limited to 11.5: 1 or less. If compression is too high, the air- fuel
mixture will overheat and ignite before the spark plug fires, which can damage an engine.
Compression ratios on today’s gasoline engines range from 8:1 to 9:1
Diesel engines have higher compression ratio than gasoline engines because they rely on high
compression to create heat for fuel ignition. Diesel compression ratios range from about 16:1 to 22:1.
Increasing the compression ratio of diesel engines beyond the limit increases the load on the engine
parts, which may result damage to these parts.
2.3.2 Volumetric Efficiency (VE)
Volumetric efficiency is the ratio between the amount of air fuel mixture that enters the cylinder on the
intake stroke and the amount required to completely fill the cylinder to atmospheric pressure. For
example, a certain cylinder has an air volume of 770 cc. If the cylinder were allowed to completely
“fill up,” it would take in 0.964 g of air. However, suppose that the engine is running at a high speed,
so only 0.765 g of air can enter during each intake stroke. This means that the volumetric efficiency is
only about 80 percent. Actually, 80 percent is a good volumetric efficiency for an engine running at
fairly high speed. The volumetric efficiency of some engines may drop to as low as 50 percent at high
speeds.
The reason behind the drop of volumetric efficiency as the engine speed increase is that the mixture
must pass rapidly through narrow openings and bends in the carburetor and intake manifold. In
addition, the mixture is heated (from engine heat) and therefore expands. The rapid movement and
heating reduce the amount of mixture that can get into the cylinder. A full charge of air fuel mixture
cannot enter, because the time is too short and because the air becomes heated.
To improve volumetric efficiency, intake valves can be made larger. In addition, the number of valves
per cylinder can be increased. (figure 2.24). Also valve lift can be increased by making the cam lobes
on the cam larger so that the valve opens wider.

Figure 2.24 Two intake and two exhaust valves per cylinder
Volumetric efficiency can also be increased by making the intake manifold passages wider, and as
straight and short as possible. Also, the smoothness of the inside surfaces of the intake manifolds is
important. Another way to improve volumetric efficiency is to use carburetors with extra air passages
(barrels). These open at high speed to improve engine breathing. In addition, turbochargers can be
used to increase volumetric efficiency. All these changes help to increase volumetric efficiency of an
engine so that more power can be produced at higher engine speeds.
2.3.3. Engine power
A. Brake power (ep)
In the metric system the power output of an engine is measured in kilowatts (KW). Prior to the
introduction of the metric system of measurement, engine power was given in horsepower.
Brake power is the power available at the flywheel of an engine.

B. Indicated power (ip)

Indicated power is a theoretical power rating based on the pressure produced in the cylinder by
combustion. Indicated power does not take into consideration the power lost in overcoming engine
friction. Therefore, ip is always greater than the kilowatt output of the engine.
PLANK
ip= , Kilowatts
60 X 1000
Where P = mean effective pressure in KPa
 L = length of stroke in meters
A = area of cylinder in square meters
N = number of power strokes per minute (r/min2)
K = number of cylinders
C. Friction Power (fp)
Friction power is the amount of power required to overcome the friction created by the engine moving
parts.
A typical fp curve is illustrated in figure 2.25. The higher the engine r/min, the greater the losses.
About 75% of fp is created between the piston rings and the cylinder walls; the other 25% is created
between all other moving parts.

Figure 2.26 Engine torque verses

engine speed
Figure 2.25 Relationship between engine speed and friction power

Indicated power (ip) minus friction power (fp) equals amount of brake power in kilowatts delivered by
the engine at the flywheel that is available to do work

Brake power = ip – fp, kilowatts

2.2.4 Engine Torque
Engine torque is the measurement of the turning effort of the engine. The torque is produced by the
combustion and expansion of the gases pushing down on the piston and connecting rod to the throw of
the crankshaft. The higher the combustion pressure, the greater the engines torque. Engine torque is
affected by compression ratio and volumetric efficiency. Engine torque is usually measured along
with engine power on a dynamometer. (Figure 2.26)

2.2.5 Engine Efficiency

Engine efficiency is the relationship between the potential energy supplied and the amount of work
done. The amount of work to be done is the movement of the vehicle along the road. During each
step of the process of converting fuel to mechanical energy to rotate the wheels of the vehicle, energy
is lost. These losses occur in many ways such as: mechanical, thermal, engine accessories, drive line
friction, rolling resistance, air resistance, and acceleration (figure 2.27).
 Figure 2.27 Energy losses in an engine
2.2.7 Engine Mechanical Efficiency (Meff)
Mechanical losses can be calculated by dividing brake power by indicated power to find mechanical
efficiency. The loss is the amount of power used to overcome the friction of the engine.
ep
M eff = x 100 ,%
ip
Mechanical efficiency mainly depends on the quality of machining and lubrication of the engine
components and workmanship in assembling the engine. It ranges between 80-90%.
2.2.8 Engine Thermal Efficiency (Teff)
Thermal losses are heat losses. Since it is heat that creates the pressure of the power stroke, any loss
of heat results in decrease in power. Fuel contains a quantity of heat. If all of this heat were used to
produce pressure, the thermal efficiency of the engine would be 100%. However, some of the heat
produced by combustion is carried away by the cooling system. More heat is lost with the exhaust
gases, since they are still hot when they leave the engine. The remaining heat is the heat that causes
the gases to expand to produce the pressure which develops the power. About 35% of the heat is
carried away by the engine cooling water and oil, and approximately another 35% of the heat is lost in
the exhaust gases. The remaining 30% is all of the potential heat energy that is used to develop power.
Energy output from engine
Teff= x100,%
Energy supplied to engine
As a result of all the various losses in efficiency, only about 15% of the potential energy in a fuel is
used to drive vehicle along the road.
2.2.9 Timing
In a gasoline engine, the valves must open and close at the proper times with regard to piston position
and stroke. In addition, the ignition system must produce sparks at the proper time, so power strokes
can start. Both valve and ignition system action must he timed properly to obtain good engine
performance.
2.2.9.1 Valve timing
Valve timing is a system developed for measuring valve operation in relation to crankshaft position (in
degrees), particularly the points when the valves open, how long they remain open, and when they
close, figure 2.28.

Figure 2.28 Typical valve timing diagram

Valve timing is probably the single most important factor in tailoring an engine for special needs. An
engine can be made to produce its maximum power in various speed ranges by altering valve timing.
The following factors together make up a valve operating sequence:

1. The opening and closing points, figure 2.29, are positions of the crankshaft (in degrees) when
the valves just begin to open and just finish closing.

Figure 2.29 Opening and closing points of the valve Figure 2.30 Valve opening duration

2. Duration (figure 2.30) is the amount of crankshaft rotation (in degrees) that a given valve
remains open.
 3. Valve overlap (figure 2.31) is a period in a four-stroke cycle when the intake valve opens
before the exhaust valve closes.

Figure 2.31 Valve timing diagram showing valve overlap

2.2.9.2 Ignition timing

Ignition timing refers to the timing of the spark plug firing with relation to the piston position during
compression and power strokes, figure 2.32. The ignition system is timed, so the spark occurs before
the piston reaches TDC on the compression stroke. This gives the mixture enough time to ignite and
start burning.

Figure 2.31 Ignition timing

If this time were not provided—that is, if spark occurred at or after TDC—then the pressure increases
would take place too late to provide a full-power stroke.

In figure 2.31, view A, the spark occurs at 10 degrees before top dead center; view B, the spark occurs
at top dead center; and view C, the spark occurs at 10 degrees after top dead center.
At higher speeds, there is still less time for the air-fuel mixture to ignite and burn. The ignition system
includes both the vacuum and mechanical advance mechanisms that alter ignition timing to
compensate for this and avoid power loss, as engine speeds increases.

Chapter summary

 Heat engines are of two general types, External Combustion Engines (ECE) and Internal
Combustion Engines (ICE).
 The engines in automobiles are all internal combustion engines.
 The typical automotive engine is made up of several essential components.
 Both the spark ignition and the compression ignition engines are very much alike
 The engine operation cycle is the process of drawing air and fuel into a cylinder, compressing it,
burning it to develop power, and exhausting the burned gases.
 There are two kinds of piston engines. Spark ignition and compression ignition
 The spark ignition engine uses a highly volatile fuel
 In the compression ignition, or diesel, engine the fuel is mixed with the air after the air enters the
engine cylinders
 The four- stroke cycle consists of 4 piston stokes: two piston strokes up and two piston strokes
down. Each stoke is named after its principal action: intake, compression, power, and exhaust.
 Nowadays most automobiles use four -cylinder, six- cylinder, or eight- cylinder engines.
 Diesel engines are similar in construction to gasoline engines, except that they are generally
heavier in construction in order to withstand the higher pressure resulting from the higher
compression ratios used.
 The two-stoke – cycle engines perform an intake and compression, power and exhaust in just one
revolution (360 degrees) of the crankshaft.
 Firing order is the sequence in which ignition occurs in the various cylinders.
 Cylinders with crank throws in the same position in relation to firing order are called pair cylinders
or running mates
 There are a variety of internal combustion engines of which some are similar to each other. Even
those, which are similar, have their various components arranged in different ways to result in a
similar operation: number of cylinders, arrangement of cylinders, type of valve arrangement, type
of cooling system, type of cycle, type of fuel used, and method of ignition
 Piston displacement (PD) for one cylinder refers to the volume that the piston displaces as it
travels from BDC to TDC and is expressed in cubic centimeter (cc) or in liters
 Engine compression ratio is the ratio of total cylinder volume (piston at BDC) to combustion
chamber volume (piston at TDC).
 Volumetric efficiency is the ratio between the amount of air fuel mixture that enters the cylinder on
the intake stroke and the amount required to completely fill the cylinder to atmospheric pressure.
 Brake power is the power available at the flywheel of an engine
 Indicated power is a theoretical power rating based on the pressure produced in the cylinder by
combustion
 Friction power is the amount of power required to overcome the friction created by the engine
moving parts
 Engine torque is the measurement of the turning effort of the engine
 Engine efficiency is the relationship between the potential energy supplied and the amount of work
done
 Valve timing is a system developed for measuring valve operation in relation to crankshaft
position (in degrees),
 Ignition timing refers to the timing of the spark plug firing with relation to the piston position
during compression and power strokes
Chapter review questions

1. For a vehicle to move, reciprocating motion must be changed to what type of motion?
2. On what three things must an internal combustion engine rely to operate?
3. A two-stroke engine has approximately what percentage of power increase over a four-stroke
engine?
4. In a two-stroke diesel engine, what sequence of events happens during the intake stroke?
5. Other than construction, what three things differ in gasoline and diesel engines?
6. What type of cylinder arrangement is used when height is a consideration?
7. In a horizontal-opposed engine, the cylinders are arranged at what number of degrees from each
other?
8. What type of head design has the valves arranged directly over the cylinder?
9. What type of head design has exhaust valves located in the engine block?
10. The relationship between actual power produced by an engine and actual power delivered to the
crankshaft is known by what term?
11. What metric unit of measurement is used to express engine displacement?
 Information Sheet-2
Servicing the engine

After a certain period of operation, engine-moving parts will wear out. Therefore, its performance will
be seriously affected, i.e., high fuel consumption and power loss of the engine are inevitable. When an
automotive technician observes these outward signs, or indications, he must first make an effective
diagnosis in order to decide as to which part is failed.

The result of these tests shows the condition of engine mechanical parts. The next step after
diagnosing the engine is that to recondition or over haul it. A poorly or badly performing engine will
be over hauled or rebuilt depending on the time and cost of service, and desired degree of restoration.

Engine rebuilding generally implies that the engine is to be restored to new specifications in terms of
fits and clearances. The job requires completing the following main operations: -
1. Disassembling the engine
2. Cleaning, inspecting, and measuring of engine parts.
3. Replacing or servicing worn or damaged engine parts.
4. Reassembling the engine.

Raising the car

One way of raising the vehicle is using a hydraulic jack. It is an important piece of equipment
owned by most shops.
Position the jack under the vehicle frame, or at one of the correct lift points shown in the service
manual. Many vehicles do not have frames and may be damaged if lifted improperly. Do not jack
under the vehicle floor pan or under front-end linkages that can be bent.
Use a jack only to raise and lower a vehicle. Cars are often serviced while raised on a jack, but
this is a dangerous practice. Vehicles have fallen and crushed people who used jacks that failed.
Always use jack stands (safety stands).

Be sure the jack stands are positional in the recommended location on the frame. Shake the
vehicle to be certain it is firmly placed before going under it. Be sure to use jack stands only on a
level concrete surface. The legs can dig into asphalt on a hot day and can cause on accident.
The second method of raising the vehicle is by using air/hydraulic and electric lifts or hoists. A lift
or hoist is used to lift the car into the air. The two main types are the frame – contact and the
wheel contact.
In frame – contact lifts the legs of the lift pads are positioned to the proper lift points according to
the service manual.
Raise the vehicle until its wheels are about 15cm off the ground. Shake the vehicle and double
check the contact of the lift pads to the frame to be sure the vehicle is safety mounted.
Removing Engine Mount Attaching bolts
Park properly to avoid movement of the vehicle.
Mark the mounts with a center punch or marker to show which side of the mount is the
front and which side is left or right.
Then unbolt the mounts.

Lifting the Engine out from the Car

Attach a cable sling, a chain, or a special lifting tool to the heads or block (brackets or
hanger)
Raise engine until it is clear of bonded rubber mountings.
Separate engine from transmission following the proper procedure.(refer Task4.2.1 Of Job
4 of power train service person of 10+1 program.)
Before lifting the engine, be sure to double check for anything left hooked up between the
engine and the vehicle.
Lift engine (the engine must be guided carefully when it is lifted out to prevent damage to
the transmission shaft, clutch and body etc.)
Lower the engine and move to the cleaning and repair section.

Engine Front end Disassembly

The engine front end should be removed first, especially with Over Head Camshaft (OHC)
engines.
1. Remove the water pump and any other parts bolted in front of the engine- timing cover. If a
timing belt is used, remove the belt cover. Loosen the tensioner and slip off the belt.
Note
Do not attempt to rotate the crankshaft of an OHC engine with the timing belt off. The piston
could slide up and bend the valves.
2. Remove the harmonic balancer using a wheel puller.
3. Unbolt and remove the timing chain or gear cover.
4. Remove the oil slinger and timing mechanism.
The valve cover may attach with perimeter bolts or nuts and studs which pass through the covers
outside edge. Unscrew these bolts or nuts and lift off the cover.
Disassembling Engine into its Main Components
When dismantling and rebuilding an engine, the use of the engine manufacturer’s service manual
is necessary for doing a good and proper job, since modern engines vary in design or
constructional details even if they sometimes seem to be similar for the eyes of persons not trained
in automotive technology. This will help to avoid damage on the engine while improper execution
of dismantling procedure.
With the engine bolted to an engine stand or sitting on blocks, you are ready to begin teardown.
Go slowly and inspect each part for signs of trouble. Look for wear, cracks, damage, seal leakage,
or gasket leakage. Engine teardown methods vary somewhat from engine to engine. However,
general procedures are similar and apply to all engines.
Nevertheless, there are certain steps for engine disassembling following a logical sequence which a
professional should know in order to avoid mistakes.
Engine Front end Disassembly
The engine front end should be removed first, especially with Over Head Camshaft (OHC)
engines.
1. Remove the water pump and any other parts bolted in front of the engine- timing cover. If a
timing belt is used, remove the belt cover. Loosen the tensioner and slip off the belt.
Note
Do not attempt to rotate the crankshaft of an OHC engine with the timing belt off. The piston
could slide up and bend the valves.
2. Remove the harmonic balancer using a wheel puller.
3. Unbolt and remove the timing chain or gear cover.
4. Remove the oil slinger and timing mechanism.
The valve cover may attach with perimeter bolts or nuts and studs which pass through the covers
outside edge. Unscrew these bolts or nuts and lift off the cover.
 CYLINDER HEAD
The cylinder head is made of cast iron or aluminum.
On overhead valve engines, the cylinder head
contains the valves, valve seats, valve guides, valve
springs, rocker arm supports, and a recessed area
that makes up the top portion of the combustion
chamber. On overhead cam engines, the cylinder
head contains these items, plus the supports for the
camshaft and camshaft bearings.
All cylinder heads contain passages that match passages in the cylinder block. These passages allow
coolant to circulate in the head and allow oil to drain back into the oil pan. Oil also moves through some
of the passages to lube the camshaft and valve train. The cylinder head also contains tapped holes in the
combustion chamber to accept the spark plugs.
The sealing surface of the head must be flat and
smooth. To aid in the sealing, a gasket is placed
between the head and block. This gasket, called the
head gasket, is made of special material that can
withstand high temperatures, high pressures, and the
expansion of the metals around it. The head also serves
as the mounting point for the intake and exhaust
manifolds and contains the intake and exhaust ports.
Cylinder Head Components
Ports
Intake and exhaust ports are cast into the cylinder head. One
port is normally used for each valve. How-ever, on engines
with more than two valves per cylinder, the ports for the
intake or exhaust valves may be combined. These ports are
called Siamese ports. With Siamese ports, individual ports
around each valve mesh together to form a larger single port
that is connected to a manifold.
Cross-flow ports are used on some engines and have intake and exhaust ports on opposite sides of the
combustion chamber. Heads of this design are called cross-flow heads.

COMBUSTION CHAMBER
The performance of an engine, its fuel efficiency, and its exhaust emissions all depend to a large extent on
the shape of the combustion chamber. An efficient combustion chamber must be compact to minimize the
surface area through which heat is lost to the engine’s cooling system. The point of ignition (the nose of
the spark plug) should be at the center of the combustion chamber to minimize the flame path, or the
distance from the spark to the furthermost point in the chamber. The shorter the flame path, the more
evenly the air-fuel mixture will burn.
Manufacturers have designed several shapes of combustion chambers. Before looking at the popular
combustion chamber designs, two terms should be defined.
1. Turbulence is a very rapid movement of gases. Turbulence causes better combustion because the air
and fuel are mixed better.
2. Quenching is the mixing of gases by pressing them into a thin area. This area is called the quench
area.
Wedge Chamber
In the wedge-type combustion chamber, the spark plug is located
at the wide part of the wedge. The spark travels from the large area
in the chamber to a smaller one. This allows for rapid and even
combustion.
At the end of the chamber’s wedge is a very narrow area. The
quench area, also called the squish area, causes the air and fuel to
be thoroughly mixed before combustion. The mixture in the
quench area is squeezed out at high speed as the piston moves up.
This causes turbulence in the chamber.
Hemispherical Chamber
The hemispherical combustion chamber gets its name from its
basic shape. Hemi is defined as half, and spherical means circle.
The combustion chamber is shaped like a half circle. This type of
cylinder head is also called the hemi-head.
The piston top forms the base of the hemisphere, and the valves are
inclined at an angle of 60 to 90 degrees to each other, with the
spark plug positioned between them.
Pent roof Chamber
ZMany of today’s engines have a pent roof combustion
chamber. This design is a modified hemispherical chamber.
It is mostly found in engines with four valves per cylinder.
The spark plug is located in the center of the chamber and
the intake and exhaust valves are on opposite sides of the
chamber. Pentroof chambers have a squish area around the
entire cylinder.
Intake and Exhaust Valves
The intake and exhaust valves are commonly called poppet valves. They tend to pop open and close.
When they open, they allow intake air to flow into the combustion chamber or allow the exhaust to leave
it. When closed, they must (along with the cylinder head gasket, piston rings, and spark plug) seal the
chamber. The heads of the intake and exhaust valves have different diameters. The intake valve is the
Cylinder head gasket
The cylinder heads are sealed (figure 9.7) to the cylinder block
to prevent gases from escaping. This is accomplished on liquid-
cooled engines by the use of a head gasket. The head gasket is
usually made of two sheets of soft steel that sandwich a layer of
asbestos. Larger of the two. An exhaust valve can be smaller
because exhaust gases move easier than intake air.
Valve Construction
Valves are made from special hardened steel, steel alloys,
or stainless steel. Other metals are often used in high-
performance valves. Heat is an important factor in the
design and construction of a valve. The material used to
make a valve must be able to withstand high temperatures
and be able to dissipate the heat quickly. Most of the heat
is dissipated through the contact of the valve face and seat.
The heat then moves through the cylinder head to its
coolant passages. Heat is also transferred through the valve
stem to the valve guide and again to the cylinder head.
Intake and exhaust valves are typically made with different
materials. Intake valves are typically low-alloy steels or heat- and
corrosion-resistant high-alloy steels. The alloy used in a typical
exhaust valve is chromium for oxidation resistance with small
amounts of nickel, manganese, silicon, and/or nitrogen.
Heat resistance is critical for exhaust valves because they face
temperatures of 816°C to 2,204°C. Intake valves need less heat
resistance because the intake air and fuel tend to cool them. Intake
valves also need less corrosion protection because they are not
exposed to the corrosive action of the hot exhaust gases.
Valve Terminology
Valves have a round head with a tapered face used to seal the intake or exhaust port. This seal is made by
the valve face contacting the valve seat. The angle of the taper depends on the design and manufacturer of
the engine. The distance between the valve face and the head of the valve is called the margin. The valve
stem guides the valve during its up-and-down movement and serves to connect the valve to its spring
through its valve spring retainers and keepers. The keepers are fit
into a machined slot at the top of the stem, called the valve keeper
groove. The stem moves within a valve guide that is either machined
into (integral type) or pressed into the head (insert type).
Valve Stems
Little oil passes through the clearance between the stem and valve
guide. Therefore, the surfaces of the guide and the stem are designed
to minimize friction. Valve stems have two common types of coating
to prevent wear and reduce friction: chrome plating and black
nitriding. In addition to these coatings, the tips of the stem are
hardened to resist damage from the constant hammering they face as
the stems are pushed open.
Valve Seats
The valve seat is the area of the cylinder head contacted by the
face of the valve. The seat may be part of the casting and
machined in the head (integral type) or it may be pressed into
the head (insert type). Insert seats are always used in aluminum
cylinder heads. They are also used to replace damaged integral
seats.
Valve seats provide a sealing area for the valves. They also absorb the valve’s heat and transfer it to the
cylinder head. Seats must be hard enough to withstand the constant closing of the valve. Due to corrosive
products found in exhaust gas, seats must be highly resistant to corrosion. When the head is made of cast
iron, it has integral seats because cast iron meets those requirements.
Valve Guides
Valve guides support the valves in the head and prevent the valves from moving in any direction other
than up and down. The inside diameter of a guide is machined to provide a very small clearance with the
valve stem. This close clearance is important for the following reasons:
It keeps oil from being drawn into the combustion chamber past the intake valve stem during the
intake stroke, and it keeps oil from leaking out to the exhaust port when the pressure in the exhaust
port is lower than the pressure in the crankcase.
It keeps exhaust gases from leaking into the crankcase area past the exhaust valve stems during the
exhaust stroke.
It keeps the valve face in perfect alignment with the valve seat.

Valve guides can be cast integrally with the head, or

they can be removable. Removable or insert guides are
press-fit into the head. Aluminum heads are fitted with
insert guides. Guides are made from materials that
provide low friction and can transfer heat well. Cast-
iron guides are mixed or coated with phosphorus
and/or chrome. Bronze alloys are also used. These may
contain some aluminum, silicon, nickel, and/or zinc.
Valve Spring Retainers and Oil Seals
The valve assembly is completed by the spring, retainer, and seal. An oil
seal is placed over the top of the valve stem. The seal acts like an
umbrella to keep oil from running down the valve stem and into the
combustion chamber. The valve spring, which keeps the valve in a
normally closed position, is held in place by the retainer. The retainer
locks onto the valve stem with two wedge-shaped parts that are called
valve keepers.
Valve Springs
A valve spring closes the valve and maintains valve train contact during valve opening and closing. Some
engines have one spring per valve. To dampen spring vibrations and increase total spring pressure, some
engine manufacturers use a reverse wound secondary spring inside the main spring. Low spring pressure
may allow the valve to float during high-speed operation. Too much pressure will cause premature valve
train or camshaft lobe wear and can also lead to valve breakage.
Rocker Arms
Rocker arms change the direction of the cam’s lifting force. As
the lifter and pushrod move upward, the rocker arm pivots at its
center point. This causes a change in direction on the valve side
and pushes the valve down. Rocker arms also allow the valve to
open farther than the actual lift of the cam lobe. This is done by
having different distances from the pivot point to the ends of the
rocker arm.
Pushrods
Pushrods are the connecting link between the rocker arm and the
valve lifter. Pushrods transmit cam action to the valves. Often the
pushrods have a hole in the center to allow oil to pass from the
hydraulic lifter to the rocker arm assembly. Some engines use
pushrod guide plates to limit the side movement of the pushrods.
Camshaft Bearings
The camshaft is part of the cylinder head assembly in all
OHC-type engines. The unit that holds the camshaft(s) may
be a separate unit bolted to the cylinder head or the
camshaft’s bore is machined into the upper part of the head.
In the most common design, the cylinder heads are
machined to accept one or two camshafts and have caps that
secure the camshaft.
Cylinder head gasket
The cylinder heads are sealed to the cylinder block to prevent
gases from escaping. This is accomplished on liquid-cooled
engines by the use of a head gasket. The head gasket is usually
made of two sheets of soft steel that sandwich a layer of
asbestos.
Steel rings are used to line the cylinder openings. They are designed to hold the tremendous pressure
created on the power stroke. Holes are cut in the gasket to match the coolant and lubrication feed holes
between the cylinder head and the cylinder block. In an air-cooled engine, cylinder heads are sealed to the
tops of the cylinders by soft metal rings. The lubrication system feeds oil to the heads through the
pushrods.
Cylinder Head Removal
The first step in disassembly of an engine is usually the
removal of the intake and exhaust manifolds. On some
inline engines, the intake and exhaust manifolds are often
removed as an assembly.
To start cylinder head removal, remove the valve cover or covers and disassemble the rocker arm
components according to the guidelines given by the manufacturer. Check the rocker area for sludge.
Excessive buildup can indicate a poor maintenance schedule and is a signal to look for wear on other
components.
When removing the cylinder head, keep the pushrods and rocker arms or rocker arm assemblies in exact
order. Use an organizing tray or label the parts with a felt-tipped marker to keep them together and labeled
accurately. This type of organization greatly aids in diagnosing valve-related problems. Remove the lifters
from the block and place them in the order they
were installed.
The cylinder head bolts are loosened one or two
turns each, following the pattern specified by the
manufacturer. The sequence is typically the
opposite of the tightening sequence. If there is no
specified procedure, the bolts ought to be loosened
one or two turns, beginning in the ends and
working toward the center. This prevents the
distortion that can occur if bolts are all loosened at once.
The bolts are then removed and the cylinder head saved to compare with the new head gasket during
reassembly. Set the cylinder head(s) on cardboard or another soft surface to prevent damage to the sealing
surfaces.
Cleaning Engine Parts
After the component that needs service has been
disassembled, its parts should be thoroughly cleaned.
The cleaning method depends on the component and
the type of equipment available. An incorrect
cleaning method or agent can often be more harmful
than no cleaning at all. For example, using caustic soda to clean aluminum parts will dissolve the part.
Caustic soda is a strong detergent that is commonly found in solvents that are effective in removing
carbon. Only after all components have been thoroughly and properly cleaned can an effective inspection
be made or proper machining be done.
Types of Contaminants
Being able to recognize the type of dirt you are to clean will save you time and effort. Basically there are
four types of dirt.
Water-Soluble Soils The easiest dirt to clean is water-soluble soils, which includes dirt, dust, and mud.
Organic Soils Organic soils contain carbon and cannot be effectively removed with plain water. There are
three distinct groupings of organic soils:
■ Petroleum by-products derived from crude oil, including tar, road oil, engine oil, gasoline, diesel fuel,
grease, and engine oil additives
■ By-products of combustion, including carbon, varnish, gum, and sludge
■ Coatings, including such items as rust-proofing materials, gasket sealers and cements, paints, waxes,
and sound-deadener coatings
Rust
Rust is the result of a chemical reaction that takes place when iron and steel are exposed to oxygen and
moisture. Corrosion, like rust, results from a similar chemical reaction between oxygen and metal
containing aluminum. If left unchecked, both rust and corrosion can physically destroy metal parts quite
rapidly. In addition to metal destruction, rust also acts to insulate and prevent proper heat transfer inside
the cooling system.
Scale
When water containing mineral and deposits is heated, suspended minerals and impurities tend to
dissolve, settle out, and attach to the surrounding hot metal surfaces. This buildup of minerals and deposits
inside the cooling system is known as scale.
Over a period of time, scale can accumulate to the extent that passages become blocked, cooling efficiency
is compromised, and metal parts start to deteriorate.
Cleaning with Chemicals
There are three basic processes for cleaning automotive
engine parts. The first process that is discussed is
chemical cleaning. This method of cleaning uses
chemical action to remove dirt, grease, scale, paint,
and/or rust.
Unfortunately, the most traditional line of defense
against soils involves the use of cleaning chemicals.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons and mineral spirits may have
some health risks associated with their use through skin exposure and inhalation of vapors. Hydrocarbon
cleaning solvents are also flammable. The use of water-based nontoxic chemicals can eliminate such risks.
Hydrocarbon solvents are labeled hazardous or toxic and require special handling and disposal procedures.
Many water-based cleaning solutions are biodegradable. Once the cleaning solution has become
contaminated with grease and grime, it too becomes a hazardous or toxic waste that can be subject to the
same disposal rules as a hydrocarbon solvent.
Chemical Cleaning Machines
Parts Washers
Parts washers (often called solvent tanks) are one of the most
widely used and inexpensive methods of removing grease, oil,
and dirt from the metal surfaces of a seemingly infinite variety
of automotive components and engine parts. A typical washer
setup might consist of a tank to hold a given volume of
solvent cleaner and some method of applying the solvent.
These methods include soaking, soaking and agitation, solvent
streams, and spray gun applicators.
Soak Tanks
There are two types of soak tanks: cold and hot.
Cold soak tanks are commonly used to clean carburetors, throttle bodies, and aluminum parts. A typical
cold soak unit consists of a tank to hold the cleaner and a basket to hold the parts to be cleaned.
After soaking with or without gentle agitation is complete, the parts are removed, flushed with water, and
blown dry with compressed air.
Cleaning time is short, about 20 to 30 minutes, when the chemical cleaner is new. The time becomes
progressively longer as the chemical ages. Agitation by raising and lowering the basket (usually done
mechanically) will reduce the soak period to about 10 minutes. Some more elaborate tanks are agitated
automatically.
Hot soak tanks are actually heated cold tanks. The source of heat is
electricity, natural gas, or propane.
The solution inside the hot tanks usually ranges from 71°C to
93°C. Most tanks are generally large enough to hold an entire
engine block and its related parts. Hot tanks use a simple
immersion process that relies on a heated chemical to lift the
grease and grime off the surface. Liquid or parts agitation may also
be used to speed up the job. Agitation helps shake the grime loose
and also helps the liquid penetrate blind passageways and crevices in the part. Generally speaking, it takes
one to several hours to soak most parts clean.
Hot Spray Tanks
The hot spray tank works like a large automatic dishwasher
and removes organic and rust soils from a variety of
automotive parts. As with the hot soak method, spray
washers soak the parts, but they also have the benefit of
moderate pressure cleaning.
Using a hot jet spray washer can cut cleaning time to less
than 10 minutes. Normally, a strong soap solution is used as
the cleaning agent. The speed of this system, along with
lower operating costs, makes it popular with many machine
shop owners.
Spray washers are often used to pre-clean engine parts prior
to disassembly. A pass-through spray washer is fully
automatic once the parts have been loaded, and the cabinet prevents the runoff from going down the drain
or onto the ground (which is not permitted in many areas because of local waste disposal regulations).
Spray washers are also useful for post-machining cleanup to remove machine oils and metal chips.
Thermal Cleaning
The second basic process for cleaning engine parts is
thermal cleaning. This process relies on heat to bake off
or oxidize dirt and other contaminants. Thermal
cleaning ovens, especially the pyrolytic type, have
become increasingly popular. The main advantage of
thermal cleaning is a total reduction of all oils and
grease on and in blocks, heads, and other parts. The high
temperature inside the oven (generally 343°C to 426°C)
oxidizes all the grease and oil, leaving behind a dry,
powdery ash on the parts. The ash must then be
removed by shot blasting or washing. The parts come
out dry, which makes subsequent cleanup with shot blast
or glass beads easier because the shot will not stick.

Abrasive Cleaners
The third process used to clean engine parts involves the use of abrasives. Most abrasive cleaning
machines are used in conjunction with other cleaning processes rather than as a primary cleaning process
itself.
Cleaning by Hand some manual cleaning is inevitable.
Heavy buildups of grease and/or carbon should initially
be removed by scraping or wire brushing. Cleaning
aluminum and other soft metals with either technique
should be done with extreme care, especially while
using a steel scraper or brush. Steel or plastic scrapers
are used to remove old gasket material from a surface
and heavy sludge.
Power tools with a small sanding disc (normally emery cloth) are
available.
These are designed to remove all soft materials without damaging the
hard metal sur-face. After the item has been scraped, an additional
cleaning method is used to finalize cleaning.
Carbon can be removed with a handheld wire brush or a wire wheel
driven by an electric or air drill motor.
Moving the wire wheel in a light circular motion against the carbon
helps to crack and dislodge the carbon. Some shops use a wire brush in
addition to another cleaning method.
Wire brushes are also used to clean the inside of oil
and coolant galleries. The brushes are soaked in a
cleaning solvent and then passed through the passages
in the block. To do this, the gallery plugs must be
removed.
Abrasive Blaster
Compressed air shot and grit blasters are best used on
parts that will be machined after they have been
cleaned. Two basic types of media are available: shot
and grit. Shot is round; grit is angular in shape. Parts
must be dry and grease-free when they go into an
abrasive blast machine.
Otherwise, the shot or beads will stick. Steel shot and glass beads are used for cleaning and/or peening the
part’s surfaces. Peening is a process of hammering on the surface.
This packs the molecules tighter to increase the part’s resistance to fatigue and stress. Steel shot is
normally used with airless wheel blast equipment, which hurls the shot at the part by the centrifugal force
of the spinning wheel. Glass beads are blown through a nozzle by compressed air in an enclosure.
Parts Tumbler
A cleaning alternative that can save considerable labor when cleaning small parts such as engine valves is
a tumbler. Various cleaning media can be used in a tumbler to scrub the parts clean. This saves
considerable hand labor and eliminates dust. In some tumblers, all parts are rotated and tilted at the same
time.
Vibratory Cleaning
Shakers, as they are frequently called, use a vibrating
tub filled with ceramic, steel, porcelain, or aluminum
abrasive to scrub parts clean. Most shakers flush the
tub with solvent to help loosen and flush away the
dirt and grime. The solvent drains out the bottom and
is filtered to remove the sludge.
Alternative Cleaning Methods
Three of the most popular alternatives to traditional
chemical cleaning systems are ultrasonic cleaning,
citrus chemicals, and salt baths.
Ultrasonic Cleaning
This cleaning process has been used for a number of
years to clean small parts like jewelry, dentures, and
medical instruments. Recently, however, the use of
larger ultrasonic units has expanded into small
engine parts cleaning. Ultrasonic cleaning utilizes
high-frequency sound waves to create microscopic bubbles that burst into energy to loosen soil from
parts. Because the tiny bubbles do all the work, the chemical content of the cleaning solution is
minimized, making waste disposal less of a problem. At the present time, however, the initial cost and
handling capacity of ultrasonic equipment is its major disadvantage.
Citrus Chemicals
Some chemical producers are starting to develop citrus-based cleaning chemicals as a replacement for the
more hazardous solvent and alkaline-based chemicals currently used. Because of their citrus origin, these
chemicals are safer to handle, easier to dispose of, and even smell good.
Salt Bath
The salt bath is a unique process that uses high-temperature molten salt to dissolve organic materials,
including carbon, grease, oil, dirt, paint, and some gaskets. For cast iron and steel, the salt bath operates at
about 371°C to 454°C. For aluminum or combinations of aluminum and iron, a different salt solution is
used at a lower temperature 315°C. The contaminants precipitate out of the solution and sink to the bottom
of the tank, where they must be removed periodically. The salt bath itself lasts indefinitely as long as the
salt is maintained properly. Cycling times with a salt bath are fairly quick, averaging 20 to 30 minutes.
Like a hot tank, the temperature of the salt bath is maintained continuously.
Crack Detection
Once engine parts have been cleaned, everything should be carefully inspected. This inspection should
include a check for cracks, especially in the engine block and cylinder head. If cracks in the metal casting
are discovered during the inspection, they should be
repaired or the part replaced.
Cracks in metal castings are the result of stress or strain in
a section of the casting. This stress or strain finds a weak
point in that section of the casting and causes it to distort or
separate at that point. Such stresses or strains in castings
can develop from the following:
■ Pressure or temperature changes during the casting procedure may cause internal material structure
defects, inclusion, or voids.
■ Fatigue may result from fluctuating or repeated stress cycles. It might begin as small cracks and
progress to larger ones under the action of the stress.
■ flexing of the metal may result due to its lack of rigidity.
■ Impact damage may occur by a solid, hard object hitting a component.
■ Constant impacting of a valve against a hardened seat may produce vibrations that could possibly lead
to fracturing a thin-walled casting.
■ chilling of a hot engine by a sudden rush of cold water or air over the surface may happen.
■ Excessive overheating is possible due to improper operation of an engine system.
Methods to check Crack Detection
Cracks can be found by visual inspection; however, many are not easily seen. Therefore, engine rebuilders
use special equipment to detect cracks, especially if there is reason to suspect a crack.
Pressure Checks
Pressure checking a cylinder block or head is done in the same way a tire is checked for leaks. All of the
coolant passages are plugged with rubber stoppers or gaskets. Compressed air is injected into a water
jacket and the point of air entry is sealed.
The block or head is then submerged into water. Bubbles will form in the water if there is a leak. The spot
where the bubbles are forming is the location of the leak.
Magnetic Checks
Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) uses a permanent
or electromagnet to create a magnetic field in a cast
iron unit. When the legs of the detector tool are placed
on the metal, the magnetic field travels through the
metal. Iron filings are sprinkled in the surface to detect
a secondary magnetic field resulting from a crack.
Because the secondary magnetic field will not form if
the crack is in the same direction as the magnet, the
magnet must be rotated and the metal checked in both
directions.
Dye Penetrant
Another common way to detect cracks is by using
three separate chemicals: penetrant, cleaner, and
developer. The part to be checked must be clean and
dry. This check must be done according to the
following sequence:
1. Spray or brush the penetrant onto the surface.
2. Wait 5 minutes.
3. Spray the cleaner onto a clean cloth.
4. Wipe off all visible penetrant.
5. Spray the developer on the tested area.
6. Wait until the developer is totally dry.
7. Inspect the area. Cracks will appear as a red line

Operation Sheet- 1
Operation title: Removing Engine from the Car
 Purpose: Procedures for removal of engines vary from made to made and from
model to model. For this reason, service manual references should be
checked prior to beginning engine removal.
Equipment, tools
and materials:
General Procedures
1.Disconnect the battery cables
The ground cable (usually the negative) should be disconnected first. Disconnecting the ground cable
first eliminates the danger of a spark when disconnecting the positive cable.
2. Label Wires and Vacuum Lines

Use masking tape to label any electrical wiring that must be disconnected.
Use different color masking tape to label vacuum lines of a carburetor in case of gasoline
engine.
3. Drain Coolant and Oil
Detach lower coolant hose from pipe and drain all coolant from the radiator and block.
If the block is equipped with a coolant drain plug, the engine block should also be drained.
Drain engine oil and remove the oil filter.
Note
The oil filter is made from thin sheet metal that is easily crushed or torn if the filter wrench is not held
as close to the filter base as possible.)
4. Remove the Hood before Removing the Engine\
Mark the location of the hood to the hood hinges so that it can be properly reinstalled.

5. Remove the Radiator

Disconnect the radiator hoses from the engine
Remove the radiator from the car.
If the car has an automatic transmission, it is probably equipped with a heat exchanger
(Transmission oil cooler) in the bottom of the radiator. The two lines leading to the radiator
from the transmission must be removed and plugged.
Modern turbo charged heavy-duty vehicles have inter-cooler in front of the radiator.
Disconnect it and remove it.

6. Remove Distributor and Spark Plug Wires (Gasoline Engine)

Remove the distributor and spark plug wiring before removing the engine to prevent damage to
them.
 Don't remove the spark plug wires from the distributor cap. They are already in the correct
firing order and need not be disturbed.

7. Remove the Alternator and Necessary Wiring

Remove the fan blades, belts, and alternator to prevent possible damage to them before
removing the engine.

8. Remove Cooling System Switches

Most engines use a coolant temperature operated device to control vacuum to emission
control devices. These switches, often called thermal vacuum switches (TVS), are very
easily damage so remove it carefully.

9. Remove the Carburetor, Air Cleaner and Intake Manifold (If Necessary)
Remove air cleaner
Carefully remove the fuel line from the carburetor.
Remove or disconnect the throttle linkage or cable.
Then, remove the carburetor and cover it up.
If the space is limited for engine removal, the intake manifold also be removed.

10. Mark Accessory Brackets and Remove Accessories

Any accessory brackets (such as for air conditioning) that are attached to the head or block
may be removed.
Label the brackets to show their locations on the head or block if there are many
accessories.
Wired up out of the way air conditioning compressor with the lines still attached (if so
equipped). When air conditioning lines must be disconnected, be sure to plug all openings
immediately.
Remove the power steering pump (if so equipped) without disconnecting the lines and wire
it in a position so that fluid can't leak out.

11. Remove Exhaust Components

Because of rust, exhaust manifold and exhaust pipe bolts will be difficult to remove and
have a tendency to break so before loosening the bolts, spray penetrating oil on them.
(Tighten a rusted fastener slightly to help the penetrating oil get into the threads).
If possible, use impact wrench to successfully remove manifold bolts.

12. Remove and Plug the Fuel Line

Disconnect the fuel line from the fuel tank.
To prevent fuel leakage from the line, plug it with a bolt and hose clamp.
13. Remove the Fuel Pump (If Necessary)
Loosen the bolts that hold the mechanical fuel pump to the block. (Gasoline engine)
Then turn the engine until all spring tension is removed from the pump rocker arm.
The eccentric will then be in its low position so the fuel pump can be easily removed.

14. Remove Engine – to – Transmission Bolts

On rear wheel drive vehicles; these bolts are easily loosened by using a very long extension
and a universal socket from underneath the car.
The transmission must be supported during the after engine removal.
Determine whether the transmission must be removed with engine or not.

Operation title: Removing cylinder head from the engine

Purpose: Procedures for removal of engines vary from made to made and from
model to model. For this reason, service manual references should be
checked prior to beginning engine removal.
Equipment, tools
 and materials:

1. Unscrew the cylinder head bolts according to the correct sequence (usually start from the outside
bolt and go to the inside), figure 9.40. On most engines all head bolts are identical. In some
engines they have differences in length. If you find differences, keep them in order so that they
can be returned back to their original places.

Sequence of unscrewing cylinder head bolts

2. If the cylinder head is difficult to lift off, pry between the cylinder head
and block with a wooden handle of a hammer or such.
3. Finally, after removing the head, inspect the head gasket and desk surfaces
for signs of leakage, for oil in the combustion chambers, indicating seal or ring problem.
Removing rocker arm assembly
1. When loosening bolts, evenly loosen from outside a little at a time in sequence.
2. Remove the rocker arm assemblies:- With v-type, push rod engines, you may need to remove the
valve train components before the intake manifold. The push rods can pass through the bottom of
the intake.
3. If lifters, push rods and rocker arms are to be reused, keep them in exact order - use an organizing
tray.
Removing camshaft
If the camshaft is located using locating plate, remove the plate and withdraw the camshaft. When
removing the camshaft, exercise care note to damage camshaft bearings. If the camshaft is located on
the cylinder head and fastened by bolts, evenly loosen from outside a little at a time in sequence

Removing valves
1. Compress valve springs using valve spring compressor
2. Remove spring retainers, valve springs, valve oil seal and valves.
3. Place removed parts in correct order.
Procedures:
1. Use the valve spring compressor in order to
compress the valve springs.
2. Remove the valve stem keys (1).
3. Remove the J 8062 from the cylinder head.
4. Remove the valve spring cap (2).
5. Remove the valve spring (3).
6. Remove the valve stem oil seal (4).
7. Discard the valve stem oil seal.
8. Remove the valve.

Important:
Mark, sort and organize the components so that
the Components can be reinstalled in their
original location and position.
 Operation title: Inspecting cylinder head

Purpose: To visually Inspect the cylinder head condition

Equipment, tools
and materials:

With the cylinder head off from the cylinder block and all the attached parts removed, clean the head
thoroughly so that it can be inspected properly. Remove any gasket material from the cylinder head
and manifold mounting surfaces.
1. Check the cylinder head for cracks or scoring.
Before investing the time and effort required reconditioning cylinder heads and blocks, it is wise to
check for cracks. Cracks may be caused by: -
a. Extremely high or low temperature
b. Too rapid a change in temperature
c. Overloading of parts
Crack can be checked visually. But most of the time crack cannot be detected properly
Crack Detection methods
The following are some methods in crack detection: -
1. Visual
Visually observe if there is any sign of crack at different parts of the cylinder head.
2. Magnetic Particle Inspection
This method can be used with iron and steel engine parts. Common areas checked by this method
include combustion chamber, and ports, core holes, and main bearing webs. But it is most appropriate
for checking cracks in block and head surfaces.

The area being tested is dusted with magnetic powder and then the magnetic field is set up in the part.
Interruptions in the magnetic field due to crack cause magnetic lines of force to form on the parts, the
powder will collect at the line of forces paralleling the crack.

3. Wet Magnaflux Method / Zyglo or Fluorescent Penetrant

This method is used usually to detect cracks in connecting rods and crankshafts. The operation
involves magnetic particles and fluorescent light. The chemical solution is sprayed over the part. The
part is then placed in a magnetic field and viewed under a black light. The chemical will collect in any
crack. The concentration in the crack will glow under the light.

4. Dye Penetrant
This method may be used on all materials. The
parts must be first cleaned thoroughly. A special
dye penetrant is applied to the part by dipping,
spraying or brushing. A few minutes are allowed
for the penetrant to enter any pores or cracks. Then
clean the surface and apply a powder like developer.
This will make the penetrant turn red if it has
collected in any crack or casting flaw. You will be able to find any block cracks or flaws more easily.
Checking the cylinder head for warpage
Using a precision straight edge and feeler gauge check in several directions and record the results.
Common limit is 0.10mm. In some cylinder heads the limit may be up to 0.2 mm.

If

found beyond the specified limits, resurfacing may be required. Surface grinding has a limit. In some
models, if the warpage exceeds the limit, replacing the cylinder head is required.

Operation title: Servicing valve components- Servicing valve guide

Purpose:
Equipment, tools Feeler gauge
 and materials:

For those engines in which the guides are an integral part, valves with oversize stems are available
when the guides (or valve stems) become excessively worn. For those engines with valve guide
inserts, wear can be corrected by replacement of the guides and/ or valves.

When wear either of the valve stem or the guide is suspected, both should be checked.
Checking stem-to-guide clearance

a. Measuring Valve Guides for Wear

Measure the inside diameter of the guide with inside
micrometer. And then measure the valve stem at lower,
middle and upper part. Finally subtract the maximum
stem diameter from the guide inside diameter.
Checking valve stem diameter
If the wear of valves exceeds the specifications, the valves should be replaced.

b. Checking valve guides by measuring valve rock

The valve guide can be checked for wear by rocking the
valve. With this method, place the valve at the correct
position to obtain the proper measurement with the dial
indicator.

The dial indicator is fastened to the cylinder head and at

right angles to the valve stem being measured. Move the
valve to and from the indicator. The total reading should
not exceed specifications.

Checking valve guides by measuring valve rock

Note
Because the valve extends out of the guide, valve rock readings will exceed specified guide – to – stem
clearance. Be sure not to confuse specifications for guide-to-stem clearance with valve rock method.
If the valve-guide wear is excessive, the guide should be reamed for a valve with an oversize stem.
Select the correct size reamer and slowly turn it by hand in the valve-guide bore. Clean the guide
thoroughly before installing the new valve. Never attempt to ream a valve guide from a standard size
directly to the maximum oversize. Instead, ream in steps using successively larger reamers so the
guide will be reamed true in relation to the valve seat.
Valve-guide insert replacement (in cars so equipped) is necessary when the old insert is worn beyond
specifications. The insert can be removed and a new one installed by means of special tools and an
arbour press, or by special tools and a hammer.

Reaming valve guide Removing valve guide insert

After a new guide has been installed, it must be hand reamed to the correct size

Operation title: Servicing valve components- Servicing valve seat

Purpose:
Equipment, tools Feeler gauge
Valve seats are present in an automobile engine to provide a perfect seal with the valves when the
valves are closed. Any wear or distortion of either the valve face or the valve seat will destroy this
perfect seal and make repair or replacement of these parts necessary.
The valve seats in most engines are an integral part of the engine block or cylinder head, having been
machined into either of these units. When this type of seat becomes damaged or excessively worn, it
becomes necessary to regrind it. Repeated regrinding will eventually result in the removal of too much
metal, in which case the engine block or cylinder head will have to be discarded. This rarely happens,
however, if care is taken in the grinding process, and if the valve train clearances are maintained.
A few cars have valve seat inserts, which means that those seats that cannot be reground to
specifications can be removed and new units installed. In many cases it will be found that only the
exhaust valve in each cylinder will have a valve seat insert-the intake valve will not.
To remove a replaceable pressed-in seat,

1. Split the old seat with a sharp chisel.

2. Then pry out the old seat.
3. New seat inserts should be chilled in dry ice for about 15 minutes to shrink them, so they can be
driven into place easily. The seat expands when returned to room temperature, which locks the
seat in place.
In most cases, the valve seats are not replaceable, so they must be ground. The angle at which the
valve seat is ground, as well as the width of the refinished face, is very important and must be main-
tained to specifications. Re-facing the seat will always result in a greater seat width. This width can
be brought back to specifications by removing metal either from the bottom of the seat with a
grinding wheel having a greater angle than the wheel used to grind the face, or from the top of the
seat with a wheel having less of an angle than the wheel used to grind the face. These angles are
mostly 300 and 600/ or sometimes 150 and 750 if the seat angle is 450.
 It is also important to bear in mind the position of seat during valve servicing. When the seat is too
high there is a very high mechanical stress of valves. It causes valve head protrusion and a consequent

high valve spring tension.

To lower the seat area, use 300 or 150 grinding stone. To correct a too low seat (protrusion), use 60 0 or
150 grinding stone.
Valve grinding stone and seat area correcting methods
Not only must the angle and width of the valve seat be maintained, but also the run out must be held to
close tolerances.
A special gauge is used to check run out. If the reading exceeds the allowable limit, the face must be
reground.

Checking run out of valve seat Valve lapping

The valve faces and seats in most engines are ground at the same angle. When this is the case, the final
grinding operation can be accomplished by means of valve-
grinding compound. It is becoming more common; however, to
reface the valve at a slightly different angle than the valve seat to
provide what is known as interference fit. In some engines, both
the intake and exhaust valves have an interference fit with their
seats.
Checking the overall contact of
Some other cars may have this type of fit only on the exhaust
the valve face with the seat
valve. It is obvious that with the different angles between the
valve face and seat, grinding compound cannot be used to finish
the surfaces. Instead, re-facing equipment must be utilized.
The overall contact of the valve face with the seat can be checked by lightly coating the valve seat
with Prussian blue, Set the valve in place and rotate while applying a light downward pressure.
If the blue is transferred to the center or upper half of the valve face (nearest the top of the head), the
fit is satisfactory. If the blue is transferred to the extreme top edge, lower the valve seat with a stone of
the proper angle (usually 30°).

If the blue is transferred to the bottom edge of the valve face, raise the seat by using a stone of the
recommended angle (usually 60°). When the seat is properly positioned, its width must be within the
recommended specifications.

Operation title: Servicing valve components- Servicing valve train

Purpose:
Equipment, tools
and materials:
Grinding valves

Clean the valves and check for wear, scoring or bending. If defective replace it with new one. Check
the valve stem tip for wear and resurface with a valve grinder up to the limit specified by the
manufacturer.

To reface valves, you'll need a valve grinding machine. This has a

rotating mandrel in which the valves are turned in front of a
spinning grinding wheel. The angle between the mandrel and
grinder is adjustable to match valve head angle specifications.
Remember that valve face angles and seat angles are usually ½ to 1
½ degrees different. The valve is faced at a slightly steeper angle for
an "interference fit." Seats are often ground to the original 45-degree
angle and their valves to 44 degrees.

Grinding valve face with a valve grinding machine

1. With the correct valve face angle set on the grinding machine, lock the angle.
2. Then insert a valve stem into the machine's chuck so that it's held above the valve guide surface
close to the head. This keeps it from rotating off center due to valve stem wear.
3. Tighten the chuck and switch the machine on. If you've missed any bent valve stems in the
inspection process, they will turn up as soon as the valve is spun by the grinding machine: the
valve head will wobble. If you find one like that, throw it away. Don't try to reface it.
4. Assuming a straight valve, work the feed screw that moves the valve closer to or farther from the
grinding wheel.
5. As you do, move the traversing lever from side to side to pass the valve face back and forth over
the grinding wheel. Make light cuts. Don't run the wheel off the valve face. Coolant should flow
across the grinding interface to keep the valve from overheating.
6. Examine the newly ground face to see whether it needs more grinding.
7. Likely it needs a second or third pass slightly closer to the wheel. Cut only enough to true the face
and create a fine, even finish. When the face is sufficiently ground, it will be the same width all
around and will have no missed spots. The idea is to grind as little material from a valve as
possible, yet give it a new all round face.
If the valve head does not clean up before reaching a knife-edge, throw the valve away and get a new
one. Do likewise if the margin is uneven; that valve's head is warped. A valve without at least
O.80mm margin soon will burn. (Check for engine-manufacturer specifications.)

Do all the valves of one kind, then all of the other kind. It takes only a few minutes to grind a whole
set of intake and exhaust valves.

You can also use the valve-refacing machine to square up valve stem tips. Don't grind off more than
0.25mm from each tip, though (refer the manual). If you do, the valve should be replaced. Light
grinding is the idea. If the chamfer is removed, restore it with a light, angled grinding.

Note

Some exhaust valves filled with sodium are not recommended for resurfacing of their tips. Refer the
service manual of the manufacturer.

Grinding valve tip with a valve grinding machine

Operation title: Servicing valve components- Inspecting valve springs

Purpose:
Equipment, tools
and materials:
Whenever the valves have been removed for inspection, reconditioning, or replacement, the valve
springs should be tested. This is often overlooked, but the valve springs play a very important part in
proper engine operation. A weak valve spring may cause unsatisfactory seating of the valve, resulting
in rough engine idling and possible damage to the valve. A distorted spring or one with too much
tension may cause excessive wear of the camshaft lobes and valve seats. Therefore, testing the valve
springs for correct pressure and squareness should be a part of every valve reconditioning operation

To measure the pressure, the spring is compressed to a specified length, and the force necessary to
hold it at this length is the valve spring pressure. A reading that varies more than 10 pounds from the
specifications indicates the spring should be replaced.

Checking valve spring

The valve spring should also be tested for distortion (squareness) by using the method. A tri-square is
placed on a flat surface with the valve spring positioned as shown. The length is measured as the
spring is rotated. If the measurements vary by more than 1/16 inch, install a new spring.
The overall length of the spring can also be measured and should agree with the specifications.
Valve Spring Installed Height
The installed height of the valve spring should be checked especially if the valves or seats have been
reground. This measurement is made from the top of the spring seat (or shim, if used) to the bottom of
the spring retainer. If the installed height is greater than the specifications, add the necessary number
of spacers between the spring and its seat to bring the assembly to the recommended height.
Servicing rocker – arm assembly
After disassembling the rocker arms, you should inspect them for wear, clogged oil holes, and damage.

Check the rocker arm-to-shaft clearance by rocking the rocker arm on its shaft as indicated on the
diagram. If worn excessively, disassemble and check

Checking the rocker arm-to-shaft clearance

Note
Arrange the rocker arm shaft and rocker support.

When wear is indicated inside the rocker bore, you can measure it with a telescoping gauge and a
micrometer or a bore gauge.

Rocker arms with bushings can be rebushed if the old bushing is worn. On some rocker arms, worn
valve ends can be ground down on the valve grinding machine. Excessively worn rocker arms should
be replaced.

Also, inspect the rocker arm shaft for wear. A worn rocker arm shaft has indentions where the rocker
arms swivel on the shaft. Wear on the shaft is usually greater on the bottom. Using a micrometer,
check the shaft to determine whether wear is within the manufacturer’s specifications.
Operation title: Servicing valve components- Servicing valve lifters

Purpose:
Equipment, tools
and materials:

Mechanical
Check the lifters and lifter bores for wear or damage. Check the bottom surface of each tappet for
hollowing. This is the part that rides the camshaft.
Measure the valve lifter outer diameter and valve lifter bore diameter. The difference between the two
is the oil clearance. Compare the result with the manufacturer’s specification. If it is out of limit,
replace the valve lifter with new one.
Hydraulic
The most common causes of hydraulic lifter troubles are dirt, gum, varnish, carbon deposits, and air
bubbles. Less common troubles are caused by worn parts. If any of these causes exist (except the
presence of air bubbles), it will be necessary to remove the lifter for cleaning, repair, or replacement.
Dirt, gum, and varnish can prevent the check valve (or ball) from seating, causing a loss of hydraulic
pressure. The plunger will force oil back through the unseated valve into the plunger chamber during
the time the push rod is being lifted. Dirt, gum, or varnish can also cause the plunger to stick or
become sluggish, resulting in noisy operation. In the same manner, the body of the lifter may also stick
in the bore. This will result in the engine valve remaining open at all times.
When it is necessary to remove one or more lifters, certain precautions should be observed. The
following general procedure should be used:
1. Clean all dirt from cylinder heads, rocker-arm and valve-lifter covers, and any adjacent area. It is
of the utmost importance to avoid getting dirt into the hydraulic valve lifters.
2. Remove the rocker-arm and valve-lifter covers as necessary to gain access to the valve lifters.
3. Remove the valve lifters that require service, following the procedure for the particular make and
model of car being repaired.
4. Place the lifters in a wooden block having numbered holes or use another suitable method of
identifying them according to their original position in the engine.
5. If less than a full set of lifters is being removed, immediately disassemble and inspect one or two
lifters for the presence of dirt, gum, or varnish. If any dirt, gum, or varnish is found, all lifters
should be removed for cleaning and inspection; otherwise it is necessary to service only those
lifters that are not operating properly.
6. Examine the cam contact surface at the lower end of each lifter body. If this surface is excessively
worn, galled or otherwise damaged, discard the lifter assembly and replace with a new unit.
Disassembly and Cleaning-Observe the utmost cleanliness when disassembling and assembling a
hydraulic valve lifter. Never perform this operation on a dirty workbench.
Note
The internal parts of each hydraulic lifter are matched sets. Do not interchange with parts of other
lifters. It is advisable to work on only one lifter at a time to avoid mixing the parts.
Keep the lifter assemblies in the proper sequence so that they can be installed in their original bores.
Use the following procedure to disassemble and clean.
1. Remove the plunger retainer ring with pliers or the special tool designed for this purpose. It may
be necessary to depress the plunger to release the retainer ring. This can be done with a push rod.
2. Remove the push-rod cup, metering valve (if so equipped), and plunger and spring assembly.
3. Invert the plunger and spring assembly and remove the check-valve retainer. Next remove the
check valve (ball or disc type) and spring.
4. Clean all parts in a suitable solvent that will remove all varnish and carbon.
5. Thoroughly wipe off all parts with a clean lint-free cloth, using a hard wiping action to remove any
deposits. Rinse in clean kerosene.
6. Inspect the parts and discard the entire lifter assembly if any part shows signs of pitting, scoring, or
galling. Replace the entire assembly if the plunger is not free in the body. The plunger should drop
to the bottom of the body by its own weight.
7. Reassemble the lifter if all parts appear to be in good condition.
Checking Leak-down Rate

Any reassembled hydraulic lifter or any unit suspected of being defective should be checked for
correct leak down rate. This is a test of how rapidly or slowly the oil from the lower chamber leaks
past the plunger, allowing the plunger to settle toward the bottom of the lifter body. A certain amount
of leakage is desirable in order that fresh oil will gradually be supplied to the lifter. Too rapid a leak
down will result in noisy operation. Check for leak down as follows:

1. Remove the push-rod cup and completely submerge the lifter in an upright position in clean
kerosene, or other liquid that might be recommended by the car manufacturer.
2. Allow the lifter to completely fill with kerosene.
3. Remove the lifter and replace the push-rod cup.
4. Hold the lifter upright and force the plunger down with either a push rod. If the plunger collapses
almost instantly as pressure is applied, disassemble the lifter, clean and test again.
5. If the lifter still does not operate satisfactorily, replace with a new unit.

Operation title: Servicing Camshaft

Purpose:
Equipment, tools
and materials:
Camshaft is checked and measured to determine wear, end play and runout.
Check diameter of camshaft journals with micrometers and check against specifications.
 Checking diameter of camshaft journals Measuring camshaft bearing oil
with micrometers clearance

Measure camshaft bearing oil clearance using inside and outside micrometer and check against
specification. Since the specifications vary from model to model follow manufacturers manual.
Measure the cam lobe height and compare it with the specification.

Measuring cam lobe height checking for runout

Check the camshaft for runout. Replace the camshaft if it exceeds the limit specified by the
manufacturer.
To determine cam lobe wear: -
 Measure the height of the exhaust and intake lobes with
micrometer
 Valve lift is determined by subtracting lobe diameter
from lobe height.
Checking camshaft end play
Measure endplay with dial indicator if installed in head or cylinder block or with feeler gauge between
locating plate and gear.
Learning Activity Performance
Test

Practical demonstration

Name:______________________________ Date: ________________

Time started: ________________________ Time finished: ________________

Activity: Camshaft Inspection:
Inspect the engine camshaft for the following:
Camshaft oil clearance
Worn, scored or damaged bearing journals (1)
Worn engine camshaft lobes (2)
Damaged bolt hole threads (3)
Damaged camshaft sprocket locator pin (4)

Measure the engine camshaft journals outside diameter with a micrometer & camshaft journals
bearings inside diameter with ______________?
Note:
1. The camshaft bearing caps should be tightened with a specified torque. Why?
_______________
2. Subtracting the journal outside diameter from the bearing inside diameter provides its oil
clearance.
Mention the expected causes & remedy.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
______________________

Measure the engine camshaft journals with a micrometer. If the

camshaft journals are more than 0.025 mm out-of-round, then the
corrective action is to ________________________.

Measure for a bent engine camshaft or excessive engine camshaft

runout using dial indicator.
a. Mount the engine camshaft in a suitable stand between
centers.
b. Use the dial gauge in order to check the intermediate engine
camshaft journals.
If the runout exceeds 0.065 mm (0.0026 in), the engine camshaft is bent.
Remedy________________________________?
Measure the engine camshaft lobe lift using either a dial
gauge or a micrometer/Vernier caliper.
A) Dial gauge method:
Place the engine camshaft on the V-blocks.
Take reading.
B) Micrometer/Vernier caliper method:
Take outside diameter measurement at eccentric
side.
 Take outside diameter measurement at concentric circle side.
The difference between the diameters is the cam-lob height.
If the cam-lob height is under the specification:
I) Its causes & side effect?
Cause:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________
Side effect:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________
II) Remedy action?
__________________________________________________________________

Activity: Valve Spring Inspection

Valve springs close the valves after they have been opened by the cam. Valve springs must close the
valve squarely to form a tight seal and to prevent valve stem and guide wear.
Valve springs are checked for:
Free height
Installed height
Squareness/warpage
Spring tension

Measure both free and installed valve spring heights using vernier caliper.
What does a smaller installed height than spec pinpoints?
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________
Explain the consequence if the free height of the valve spring is higher
Measure/check for squareness by using a square on a flat surface as shown
aside. Explain how a warped/out-of-square spring beyond specification
may yield:
A) Power loss?
______________________________________________________

B) Lubrication oil consumption?_____________________________________

C) Noisy valve operation?
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________

D) Valve burning?
__________________________________
Measure/check for spring tension by using a spring
tester at:
(l) free height (height without being compressed),
(2) pressure at installed height [with the valve
closed], and
(3) pressure with the valve open to the height
specified.
Explain the consequence if the pressure/tension of the
valve spring at specified height is under than spec.

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
What corrective action would you take for the case mentioned above?
Activity: Valve Inspection
Valves should be inspected for the following:
Burnt or damaged areas (1)
Undersize margin (2)
Bent stem (3)
Scoring or other damage to the stem (4)
Worn key groove (5)
Worn stem tip (6)

Valve contact surface should be inspected for the following:

Undersized margin (1)
Pitted surfaces (2)
Burnt or eroded areas (3)
Acceptable edge (margin) (4)

Measure/check the valve overall length using a vernier calipers.

If the overall length is below the spec:

A) Mention the probable causes:
 __________________________________________________

B) Explain its side-effect:

_______________________________________________________
_________________________________________________

C) Remedy:
______________________________________________________

Measure/check the diameter of the valve stem using a micrometer.

Assuming wear measured was out of
limit/Spec:

A) Mention causes:
_____________________________
____________________________
________________________.

B) Explain the effects it may yield:

Measure/check the valve head margin thickness sing a

Vernier calipers.

If the margin thickness was under spec:

A) Mention causes:
_____________________________
____________________________
B) Explain the effects it may yield:
_______________________________
Activity: Valve Seat Inspection
(a) Apply a light coat blue color (or white lead) to the valve
face.
(b) Lightly press the valve against the seat.
NOTICE: Do not rotate valve.
(c) Check the valve face and seat according to the follows:
If blue appears 360 around the face, the valve is
concentric. If not, replace the valve.
If blue appears 360 around the valve seat, the guide
and face are concentric. If not, resurface the seat.
Check that the seat contact is in the middle of the
valve face with the width between 1.0 – 1.4 mm [For
Yaris Engine].
Purpose: Valve Rocking Action Measurement
Tools: SST & Dial gauge
Procedures:
1. Clamp the SST on cylinder head.
2. Position the dial indicator so that the movement of
the valve stem from side to side (crosswise to the
cylinder head) will cause a direct movement of the dial
indicator stem. The dial indicator stem must contract the
side of the valve stem just above the valve guide.
 3. Drop the valve head about 1.6 mm (0.063 in) off the valve seat.
4. Use light pressure and move the valve stem from side to side in order to obtain a valve stem-to-
guide clearance reading. Refer to Engine Mechanical Specifications.
Methode-2: Diameter difference Measurement:
Procedure:
1. Measure stem wear using outside micrometer.

2. Measure the valve guide inside diameter at middle

using hole/telescopic gauge & check the gauge size
with micrometer.
The dimension of the valve stem diameter is
subtracted from the dimension of the valve guide
diameter.
If the clearance between the stem and the guide exceeds
the specified clearance, Mention:
A)
Causes_________________________________________
B) Consequences: ________________________________
C) Remedy: _____________________________________