COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

CHAPTER I

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

DEFINITION OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY - Forensic chemistry is defined as that branch of chemistry which deals with the application of
chemical principles in the solution of problems that arise in connection with the administration of justice. It is chemistry applied in
the elucidation of legal problems.

SCOPE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY - Forensic chemistry embraces a large and diversified field. It includes not only the chemical side of
criminal investigation with which it is generally associated with the public mind but also the analysis of any material the quality of
which may give rise to legal proceedings. Forensic chemistry is not limited to purely chemical questions involved in legal
proceedings. It has invaded other branches of forensic sciences notably legal medicine, ballistics, questioned documents,
dactyloscopy, and photography.

The History of Forensic Chemistry

Poisons were employed by early Egyptians and ancient Greeks and Romans. Democritus was
probably the first chemist to study poisons, and he communicated some of his findings to
Hippocrates . Poisons were used both for murder and as a means of execution; the philosopher
Socrates was condemned to death by drinking hemlock . Ancient Roman civilization had laws
against poisoning in 82 B.C.E. Before the development of systematic, scientific criminal
investigation, guilt was determined largely by circumstantial evidence and hearsay. Arsenic was a
popular poison in Roman times. It was referred to as inheritance powder in early France. The
Blandy trial of 1752 was the first instance of an actual chemical test for poison, and the Marsh
test, developed in 1836, was the first reliable analysis that could show scientifically that arsenic
was present in the body of a victim.
Poison hemlock is a highly toxic plant Poison hemlock is also known as: deadly hemlock poison

parsley California fern spotted

hemlock

What is poison hemlock?

 The poison hemlock (Conium maculatum L.) is a dangerous plant that grows throughout the United States. The hemlock
plant has white flowers that grow in clusters, and the stem has purple spots. This plant can grow up to 9 feet tall.
 It was initially brought over from Europe as a garden plant. Hemlock typically grows in the spring, but in some locations it
can grow as year-round.
 Hemlock poisoning occurs after ingesting any part of the plant, such as the seeds, flowers, leaves, or fruits. All parts of this
plant contain toxic alkaloids that can be fatal even in small amounts. The alkaloids can affect nerve impulse transmission to

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 your muscles, eventually killing you through respiratory failure. Even touching this plant may cause a skin reaction in some
people. To date, there is no antidote.
 The leaves are particularly poisonous in the spring, up until it produces flowers. The roots of poison hemlock can easily be
mistaken for wild parsnips, while the leaves can be mistaken for parsley. This is the primary culprit for accidental poisoning.
 Poison hemlock is often found on roadsides, in waste areas and near fences. It can be mixed in with harmless plants in
pastures and crops, making this plant particularly dangerous to livestock. However, its unpleasant, musty odor usually
causes animals to avoid it unless there is no other foliage or feed available to eat
Hemlock poisoning symptoms
 Symptoms of hemlock poisoning can appear anywhere between 30 minutes to hours after ingesting the plant. The severity
of your symptoms greatly depends on how much of the plant is in your system and the toxicity of the plant at its time of
growth.
 Common symptoms of hemlock poisoning may include:
 trembling
 burning in the digestive tract
 increased salivation
 dilated pupils
 muscle pain
 muscle weakness or muscle paralysis
 rapid heart rate followed by a decreased heart rate
 loss of speech
 convulsions
 unconsciousness or coma
 In more severe cases, ingesting this plant can cause serious health issues. Complications from hemlock poisoning include:
 central nervous system depression
 respiratory failure
 acute rhabdomyolysis (the destruction or degeneration of muscle tissue (as from traumatic injury, excessive exertion, or
stroke) accompanied by the release of breakdown products into bloodstream and sometimes leasing to acute renal failure
or breakdown of damaged skeletal muscle
 acute renal failure
 death

Present Chemist –
Every chemist is
schooled in general,
organic, and analytical chemistry, but forensic chemists also specialize in specific areas of expertise. For example, an inorganic
chemist may examine traces of dust by using microchemistry to identify the chemical composition of tiny particles. Another chemist
might employ thin-layer chromatography during the analysis of Forensic scientists examine evidence from crime scenes in an effort
to solve crimes. This scientist is removing a piece of blood-stained material gathered at a crime scene for DNA testing.

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Forensic scientists examine evidence from crime scenes in an effort to solve crimes relating to blood or urine for traces of drugs, and
still another might use chemical reactions in test tubes to identify larger samples of compounds.

ROLE OF CHEMIST IN SCIENTIFIC CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION - Forensic chemistry encompasses organic and inorganic analysis,
toxicology , arson investigation, and serology .

Each method of analysis uses specialized techniques and instrumentation. The process may be as simple as setting up a density
gradient column to compare soil samples or as complicated as using a mass spectrometer or neutron activation analysis to
characterize an unknown substance.

Forensic chemistry encompasses organic and inorganic analysis, toxicology , arson investigation, and serology . Each method of
analysis uses specialized techniques and instrumentation. The process may be as simple as setting up a density gradient column to
compare soil samples or as complicated as using a mass spectrometer or neutron activation analysis to characterize an unknown
substance.

A wide array of laboratory techniques and instrumentation is used in forensic studies. This includes ultraviolet, infrared, and visible
spectrophotometry; neutron activation analysis; gas chromatography and mass spectrophotometry; high pressure liquid
chromatography; and atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The techniques and instrumentation chosen depend on the type of
sample or substance to be examined.

The fact that most samples examined are not pure substances, but are often mixed with dirt or debris, presents a major challenge to
the forensic chemist. This may also be an advantage, as every substance collected at a crime scene is a unique mixture of chemical
compounds that can ultimately be identified. Arsonists, for example, often use accelerants such as gasoline or kerosene to speed
combustion and spread flames in the interior of a building. A forensic chemist may collect samples of burned and unburned
materials, extract the volatile hydrocarbons, and separate the components for analysis by gas chromatography.

PRINCIPLES OF FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY

Postmortem Toxicology- is used to determine whether alcohol, drugs or other poisons may have caused or contributed to the death
of a person.
Case Investigation
 Often the investigating officers will not know whether or not any offence has been committed until the result of the
forensic toxicological analyses are available.
 Details of the circumstances that lead to the conclusion that a criminal action might have taken place must be supplied tp
the toxicologist so that the analyses can be planned.
 Every case submitted must be accompanied by a form. The information will assist the toxicologist to use the most directly
useful methods of analysis, and to interpret the results in the context of the case at a later stage.
 There are several branches of forensic science; these include
-Forensic Medicine-the application of medical knowledge to the investigation of crime, particularly in establishing the
causes of injury or death.
-Forensic Biology- Forensic biology is the application of biology to law enforcement. It includes the subdisciplines of
forensic anthropology (the study of human beings' similarity to and divergence from other animals). Forensic Botany
(Forensic botany, otherwise known as plant forensics, is the use of plants in criminal investigations.

This includes the analysis of plant and fungal parts, such as leaves, flowers, pollen, seeds, wood, fruit, spores and
microbiology, plus plant environments and ecology.

The aim is to link plant evidence with a crime, such as placing a suspect at a crime scene through analysis of pollen or seed
particles found on their clothing), forensic entomology (Forensic entomology is the use of the insects, and their arthropod
relatives that inhabit decomposing remains to aid legal investigations) , forensic odontology (Forensic odontology is the
application of dental science to legal investigations, primarily involving the identification of the offender by comparing
dental records to a bite mark left on the victim or at the scene, or identification of human remains based on dental records)
and various DNA or protein based techniques.
- Forensic Pathology (orensic pathology is pathology that focuses on determining the cause of death by examining a corpse.
A post mortem is performed by a medical examiner)
- Forensic Toxicology (Forensic toxicology is the use of toxicology and disciplines such as analytical chemistry, pharmacology
and clinical chemistry to aid medical or legal investigation of death, poisoning, and drug use)
- Forensic Chemistry (is the application of chemistry and its subfield, forensic toxicology, in a legal setting. A forensic
chemist can assist in the identification of unknown materials found at a crime scene.[1] Specialists in this field have a wide
array of methods and instruments to help identify unknown substances).

FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY
Toxicology plays a part in forensics at three levels:
1. A criminalist may be asked to see if a person’s behavior has been influence by a drug.
2. A forensic team may examine evidence to see whether a suspect has been manufacturing illicit compounds.
3. Forensic experts will look for evidence that a toxic substance has killed a person.

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 Intoxicant vs, Poison
An intoxicant, such as alcohol or carbon monoxide, requires that you ingest
a large amount to be lethal.

A true poison, such as cyanide, requires only a very small amount.

Where are the best places to collect samples?

1. Where the chemical enters
2. Where the chemical concentrates
3. Along the route of elimination

What are the clues?

 Ingested toxins shows up in the stomach, intestines or liver
 Inhaled gases are concentrated in the lungs
 Toxins that are injected intramuscularly concentrate themselves around the injection site.
 Drugs that are given intravenously are directly absorbed into the blood by passing the stomach and liver. Concentrations
are found throughout the body, are low in the stomach and liver and high in the blood stream.

Best Tissues to Sample for Poisons

 Blood- must useful tool, will show chemical and its metabolites, blood levels show what was going on in the body at the
time of death.
 Urine- easy to obtain, high concentrations, kidneys are along the elimination route.
 Stomach contents- digestion stops at the moment of death.
 Liver- the toxin sponge of you body can reflect levels of toxins that even the blood may not reveal.
 Vitreous Humor- eyeball fluid very slow to decay so will retain toxins even longer than most other organs.
 Hair- chemicals take about 5 days to show up in the core of a hair shaft.
 Insects- toxins can accumulate (bioaccumulation) in the bodies of insects that feed off of decomposed bodies.

Determining manner and cause of death

 Natural- ex. Heart attack
 Accidental- ex. Children putting things in their mouths leading to suffocation, misreading labels, and mixing dangerous
chemicals.
 Suicidal- ex. Poisoning and overdose
 Homicidal- ex. Purposeful tampering and use of weapons

Alcohol Facts
 The most commonly abused drug
 Blood-alcohol levels are directly proportional to the degree of intoxication and are expressed in grams percent (# of
grams of alcohol/100 ml blood).
 Acts on the Central Nervous System favoring the brain
 Blood carries alcohol all cells of your body but mostly to the watery areas of your body.

Alcohol Absorption
 Alcohol is absorbed through the stomach and the small intestines
 The rate of absorption depends on:
 Total time taken to consume
 Alcohol content
 Amount consumed
 Body weight
 Stomach contents
Most common poisons
 Cyanide- one of the most lethal chemicals known used for executions causes a bright cherry red blood.
 Strychnine- rat poisons causes so much pain that it is rarely used in suicide.
 Ethylene glycol- antifreeze a favorite (deadly) beverage among alcoholics when they can’t get ethanol.
 Heavy metals- arsenic, mercury and lead
 Insulin- lifesaving for diabetics but deadly overdoses
 Corrosive chemicals- strong alkalis that burn the mouth, esophagus and stomach.

Laboratory Test used in Forensic Chemistry

1. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), formerly referred to as high-pressure liquid
chromatography, is a technique in analytical chemistry used to separate, identify, and quantify
each component in a mixture. It relies on pumps to pass a pressurized liquid solvent containing
the sample mixture through a column filled with a solid adsorbent material. Each component in
the sample interacts slightly differently with the adsorbent material, causing different flow rates
for the different components and leading to the separation of the components as they flow out
of the column.

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 HPLC has been used for manufacturing (e.g., during the production process of pharmaceutical and biological products),
legal (e.g., detecting performance enhancement drugs in urine), research (e.g., separating the components of a complex
biological sample, or of similar synthetic chemicals from each other), and medical (e.g., detecting vitamin D levels in blood
serum) purposes.

2. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is an analytical method that

combines the features of gas-chromatography and mass spectrometry to identify
different substances within a test sample. Applications of GC-MS include drug
detection, fire investigation, environmental analysis, explosives investigation, and
identification of unknown samples, including that of material samples obtained from
planet Mars during probe missions as early as the 1970s. GC-MS can also be used in
airport security to detect substances in luggage or on human beings. Additionally, it
can identify trace elements in materials that were previously thought to have
disintegrated beyond identification. Like liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, it
allows analysis and detection even of tiny amounts of a substance.

3. Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) is a

spectroanalytical procedure for the quantitative determination of chemical elements
using the absorption of optical radiation (light) by free atoms in the gaseous state.
Atomic absorption spectroscopy is based on absorption of light by free metallic ions.

In analytical chemistry the technique is used for determining the concentration of a

particular element (the analyte) in a sample to be analyzed. AAS can be used to determine over 70 different
elements in solution, or directly in solid samples via electrothermal vaporization, and is used in pharmacology,
biophysics, archaeology and toxicology research.

4. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a technique used to obtain an infrared

spectrum of absorption or emission of a solid, liquid or gas. An FTIR spectrometer
simultaneously collects high-resolution spectral data over a wide spectral range. This
confers a significant advantage over a dispersive spectrometer, which measures intensity
over a narrow range of wavelengths at a time.

5. Thin-layer chromatography can be used to monitor the progress of a reaction, identify

compounds present in a given mixture, and determine the purity of a substance. Specific
examples of these applications include: analyzing ceramides and fatty acids, detection of
pesticides or insecticides in food and water, analyzing the dye composition of fibers in
forensics, assaying the radiochemical purity of radiopharmaceuticals, or identification of
medicinal plants and their constituents.
SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
The investigator is a fact-finder, but he must know the laws concerning the nature of his activities. He should procure
evidence in such a way that the findings can be admitted in court and remain impregnable to any attack by the opposing counsel.
The average investigator is in constant contact with various investigative and enforcement agencies and he should learn to speak
their language.

Evidence is proof of allegation. It is a means sanction by law, of ascertaining in judicial proceedings the truth respecting a
matter of fact. (Sec. 1. Rule 128, Rules of Court). Scientific evidence, therefore, may be defined as the means sanction by law, of
ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact wherein scientific knowledge is necessary. Such scientific
evidence must be relevant and correspond to the substance of the issue and must not be excluded by the Rules of Court. Scientific
evidence should not be mere collateral matters except when they tend in any reasonable degree to establish the probability or
improbability of a fact in issue.

Evidence may be (a) direct, (b) indirect, which Includes circumstantial evidence, and (c) hearsay.

a. Direct evidence - is simply that which the senses perceive, Any fact. To which the witness testifies based on what he saw, heard,
smelled. touched or tasted, is direct evidence. It frequently happens that no witness was present at the commission of the crime, or
even if there are witnesses, they are not willing to testify. The necessity of resorting to other means of proof is obvious, crime are
secrets. Most persons engaged in criminal activities seek the security of seclusion, darkness, and remoteness to cover their
misdeeds. It becomes necessary to use all other available model of evidence to establish and prove a case in court.

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b. Circumstantial evidence - this is necessary when there is no witness available. It is a kind of evidence which seeks to establish a
conclusion by inferences from proved facts.

To illustrate this kind of evidence, let us assume that while a policeman was walking in his beat, he heard a scream come
from a house. He ran to the house and almost immediately he saw a man coming out of the house holding a bloody knife. The
policeman placed the man under arrest and entered the house. There he found a woman slumped to the floor in a pool of blood
with a stab wound on the breast. In this case, the only direct evidence to which the policeman can testify would be that he saw the
man come out of the house holding a bloody knife. He cannot testify positively that the man killed the woman yet the fiscal may
seek to establish the conclusion that the man with the knife is the killer by inference from the proved facts testified to by the
policeman.

Circumstantial evidence is sufficient to produce conviction if there is more than one circumstance; the facts from which the
inferences are derived are proven: and the combination of all the circumstances is such as to produce conviction beyond reasonable
doubt.

c. Hearsay evidence
it is a statement made by a witness on the authority of another and not from his own personal knowledge or observation.
Hearsay evidence is inadmissible except with certain well-defined exceptions. Some of more common exceptions to the rules of
exclusion generally applicable to hearsay evidence are declaration against interest, dying declaration, res gestae, reputation, public
records and statements made at a prior time.

Importance of the Chain of Custody

The chain of custody proves the integrity of a piece of evidence.
[1] A paper trail is maintained so that the persons who had charge of the evidence at any given
time can be known quickly and summoned to testify during the trial as and if required.
A record of the chain of evidence must be maintained and established in the court whenever
presenting evidence as an exhibit.
[2] Otherwise, the evidence may be inadmissible in the court leading to serious questions
regarding its legitimacy, integrity, and the examination rendered upon it.
 [3] It is imperious for the chain of custody to document every transmission from the
moment the evidence is collected, from one person to another person, to establish
that nobody else could have accessed or possessed that evidence without
authorization. Although there is no limit on the number of transfers, it is superlative
to keep this number as low as possible Evidence must be handled conscientiously to
avert tampering. The chain of custody is said to be the sequential documentation or
trail that accounts for the sequence of custody, control, transfer, analysis, and
disposition of physical or electronic evidence. The goal is to establish that the alleged evidence is related to the alleged
crime, was collected from the scene, and was in its original/unaltered condition rather than having been tampered with or
"planted" deceitfully to make someone seem guilty. The chain of custody is considered to maintain the veracity of the
sample. The traceability of the record of the control, transfer, and analysis of samples is an indication of the transparency to
the procedure.

[4] Maintaining the chain of custody is critical in forensic practice.

[5] This step of documentation is vital because everything done for the examination and analysis of the evidentiary sample
must be authorized and recorded. The liability for the condition rests with everyone coming in contact with it. The
documentation should be comprehensive with information with regards to the circumstances under which the evidence
was collected, the people who handled the evidence, period of the guardianship of evidence, safekeeping conditions while
handling &/or storing of the evidence, and the way in which evidence is handed over to subsequent custodians every time a
transfer occurs (along with the signs of individuals involved at respective stage).
[6] It prevents police officers and other labs/law officials involved from tainting the evidence or misplacing the piece of
evidence as it would eventually be traceable back to them, and they would be held responsible for the same.

FORMS OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE

1.Real or Autoptic evidence - It is the evidence which is addressed to the senses of the court. It
is not limited to that which can be known by the sense of vision but extends to those which are
perceived by the sense of hearing, taste, smell or touch.

2. Testimonial evidence - an expert may be placed on the witness

stand and answer all questions to be propounded by both parties
in the case.

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 3. Experimental evidence - an expert witness may be required to perform certain
experiments to prove a certain matter of fact. The court, however, in its own discretion
may or may not allow this kind of evidence.

4. Documentary evidence - Any written evidence presented by an expert in court which

is relevant to the subject matter in dispute and not excluded by the Rules of Court.
Formal written report, expert opinion, certificates, and dispositions are included in this
group.

WITNESS - A witness in court may be an ordinary or expert witness. As ordinary witness, the Rules of
Court requires that the person must have the following qualifications:

1. He must have the organ and power to perceive.

2. The perception gathered by his organ of sense can be imparted to others.
3. He does not fall any of the exception provided for by law: rule 123 of the Rules of Court.

PROBATIVE VALUE OF EXPERT TESTIMONY

Whether the courts are or are not bound by the testimony of an expert, depends upon the nature of the subject of inquiry.
If the subject comes within 244; Dolor v. Diancen, 55 Phil. 479). When, however, the subject of inquiry is of the general knowledge of
the judge, the latter will not feel bound by the conclusion of the expert as for example when the question of the genuineness of
handwriting as compared to a standard is in issue ( Paras v. Narciso 35 Phil.

Such a nature that a layman can have no knowledge thereof, as for example, the determination of percentage by blood
test, the court must be dependent on expert evidence.

In weighting the testimony of an expert, all the circumstances of the case must be taken into consideration, among them
are: a) the degree of learning of the witness; b) the basic and logic of his conclusion and 3) the other proof of case (U.S. v. Trono 3
Phil: Samson v. Corrales Tan Quintin, 44 Phil 573).

PRACTICE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

The work of forensic chemist is divided into four stages, namely: 1) collection and reception of the specimen to be
examined: 2) the actual examination; 3) the communication of results of the examination: and 4) court appearance.

1. Collection and reception of the specimen to be examined - it is most important that whenever possible the chemist should
personally collect all the specimens necessary for the examination. Unless this is done, something essential to the elucidation of the
problem may be omitted and in some cases questions regarding the collection and transit of the specimen are raised during the trial.
Furthermore, the collection, preservation, and transportation of specimens are very essential in the investigation of crime. If the
chemist will not personally collect the specimen, it is possible that the articles may be taken handled, or packed in such a way as to
render them almost useless for purposes of examination. Sometimes it is necessary that the chemist who examines the specimens
should know not only the condition but even the precise position in which the object was found and this can only be done if he is
called at the commencement of the investigation and before anything is removed or disturbed. The chemist who is assigned to assist
in the investigation of a crime should go to the scene of the crime, make detailed examination, take notes and measurement, make
sketches if possible, and take a photograph of the place. He should equip himself with all necessary containers for the collection of
specimens for laboratory examination. This, however, is not always practicable and even if practicable, the necessity is not
appreciated. The expert must therefore depend upon the intelligent assistance of the investigators who, must in the performance of
this delicate task is guided by the following principles:

a. SUFFICIENCY OF SAMPLES - Police are usually inclined to be niggardly in taking samples

probably because they have an unqualified belief in the magic of such analytical instruments as
the microscope and spectrograph. This mistake should be avoided. If an error is to be committed,
let it be in the side of generosity.

b. STANDARD FOR COMPARISON - If the evidence in question is found in the presence of foreign substance, a sample of foreign
substance must be submitted for analysis. For example, if blood is found on linoleum, a sample of the unstained linoleum must be
submitted together with the stained portion. In cases of adulteration or unfair competition, a genuine sample must be submitted for
comparison. In the examination of hair, textile fibers, soil, etc., samples to be used as standard for
comparison must always be submitted.

C. MAINTENANCE OF INDIVIDUALITY- Every evidence must be collected and preserved as a separate

sample. There must be no mixing or intermingling of unknown with known.

d. LABELLING AND SEALING - Evidence will have no value in

court in spite of the good report of the expert if the specimen
cannot be identified and possibility of tampering excluded. Each
sample must be labeled. Small fragment should be enclosed in a specimen boxes and the

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boxes are then sealed, preferably with sealing wax and thumb mark imprinted on the sealing wax while still warm. Labels may be
placed on the boxes although it is recommended that string tags must be used whenever possible. The label should nature and
source of the include information concerning the sample, date and the time of collection, case number, if any and name of the
person collecting the sample.
A detailed discussion of the collection, preservation, and transportation of specimen will be given for each particular
subject.
In cases where specimens are received in the laboratory for examination, the reception of the articles should be
immediately registered in a book indicating the date received, from whom received, the nature of the articles rule be opened except
when the chemist assigned to the case is present. If the and details of all identifying marks. At this state, the package should not as a
articles received are badly packed or inadequately marked and insufficiently secured and sealed, proper notations should be made in
the notebook of the analyst and the attention of the requesting party should be called so that improvement in this respect may be
taken.

2. The actual examination of the specimen - The first step in the examination of an article is to scrutinize it carefully and write down
in the laboratory notebook a complete description of its external appearance including the manner in which it is secured and
particulars of the sealing. If possible, take a photograph of the specimen. The specimen is now opened and any Inner wrappings
should be described. Finally, a detail description of the appearance of the contents of the package should be given. All wrappers
should be kept and sealing preserved since questions concerning them may be raised in court during trial.

The second step in the examination is to measure or weigh the object and all measurements and weights should be entered
in the laboratory notebook.
The specimen is then divided into several portions, one to be kept in its original condition for further reference and
production in court. If the specimen is a court exhibit, written permission from the court is necessary before its condition may be
changed.
The third step is the chemical, microscopical or physical testing, whichever is indicated. The detailed procedure of the
analysis will be described in the following chapters for each subject.
Whenever a chemical analysis is made, care should be taken that all the apparatus used are clean, reagents are pure and
that all precautions against possibility of contamination are taken. Blank and control experiments should be made whenever
possible. At every stage of the analysis full notes should be entered in the notebook.
After the examination is finished, the remaining portion of the article or the article itself should be sealed securely and
either kept for production in court or handed over to the requesting party. It is recommended that the chemist should retain the
articles he examined and should he produce them in court.

3. Communication results of the examination - The results of the examination conducted will be communicated to the requesting
party in the form of a written report which must include an enumeration of the articles received for examination with detailed
description of the packing, sealing, and labeling, date of receipt and from whom received, the purpose of the examination, the
findings and conclusion. The findings should include a brief but sufficient record of all the significant facts noted during the
examination. It is not as a rule, necessary to mention how the analysis has been conducted. Reference to some well-known and
established methods may be allowed. If a quantitative analysis was made, it is not necessary to report the results to more than one
decimal point except in cases of poisoning where the results may be given to tenths or even hundredths of a milligram. The
conclusion should be stated definitely and without ambiguity. All opinions should be supported by the evidence on which they are
based. As a rule, the report must be concise and clear, but utility should not be sacrificed for brevity. If the photomicrographs or
photographs of the specimen have been made, copies should be attached to the report stating clearly on the photographs what they
represent.

4. Court Appearance -The written report of the chemist is usually supplemented at a later date by oral evidence if the case is
brought to court or fiscals office. Since the oral evidence may be given weeks, months, or even years after the work has been made
and the report written, it is not only permissible but necessary that the chemist should refresh his memory by reference to his
laboratory notebook before presenting himself in court. It is not to court or while waiting to be called, but they should be studied
well of the collateral matters relating to it. He must anticipate and prepare himself to sufficient that these should be consulted for a
few minutes immediately before going before hand. The chemist should have a thorough knowledge of his subject and answer likely
questions having reference to the case and should be prepared to state the degree of accuracy attained. He should also know the
weakness, any, inherent in the methods employed and be ready to meet adverse criticism if directed against him. All answers to
questions and all opinions should be definite and free from ambiguity and should be given in simple language. Lengthy explanation
should be avoided as this may weaken the evidence and raise points that can be used by the opposite party to cast doubts upon it.
The witness must be composed and as much as possible avoid being Irritated by upbraiding of the opposite counsel. He must not be
swayed by passion. He should avoid allowing his interest in a case or his belief in the correctness of his own conclusions to make him
an advocate or partisan. He appears in order to present any facts he may have discovered, to interpret these and other facts and to
help the court with his opinions and his evidence should be given without a biased to either side. As Brouardel said: "If the law has
made you a witness, remain a man of science. You have no victim to avenge, no guilty or innocent person to ruin or save. You must
bear witness within the limits of science."

SIX GOLDEN RULES IN THE PRACTICE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

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1. Go slowly - good work cannot be hurried, therefore, take all the time necessary to make the case complete, no matter how urgent
it may appear or how pressing others may be for the result; it is generally possible to adjourn a case if the work cannot be finished in
time.

2. Be thorough - make a careful and minute examination of everything and do not be satisfied with a qualitative analysis if a
quantitative one be possible, it always pays to do too much than too little and it is difficult to foresee what will or will not be
required in court.

3. Take notes - keep a full, neat and clear record of everything seen and done.

4. Consult others - many cases will lead the expert into paths with which he is not familiar, and when this happens he should consult
those who are mostly likely to know. Unless an expert knows his subject thoroughly, or unless he consult others., he may go astray
seriously, thus a doctor, who found salt in an Egyptian mummy, reported it to be that of a person who had been ignorance of the
readily ascertained drowned in salt water, apparently in facts that crude natron, which contains a large proportion of salt, and at a
later date, salt itself, were commonly used in connection with mummification. The chemist too who thought that the ancient
Egyptians used quick lime as a body preservative, because he found a small amount of calcium carbonate in a mummy, was evidently
unaware of the extent to which limestone and limestone dust occur in Egypt; that burial tombs cut in the limestone rock was very
common and that the natron used in the desiccation of the body might have contained calcium carbonate. Another expert, who had
not made himself familiar with the methods of using liquid fuel under a boiler, but who evidently, had heard of the use of
compressed air in that connection, thought that this was forced into the oil in the feed tank.

5. Use imagination - this is somewhat hazardous advice, since an expert with a vivid and uncontrolled imagination is a most
dangerous person: a disciplined imagination, however, which enables inferences and deductions to be made from slender and
incomplete premise is often very useful. The imagination, however, must be kept well in hand in writing the report and the expert
should remember that what to him may be merely a helpful working hypothesis is liable to be taken by others for more than its true
worth and to be adopted by them as a final explanation.

6. Avoid complicated theories - the simplest explanation is usually the right one. The interpretation of results is often the most
difficult part of the expert's work, and a precise knowledge of miscellaneous facts, a sound judgments, good reasoning powers and
what has already been described as "a disciplined imagination" are all essential to success.

CHAPTER II
BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS
The significance of blood and blood stains as evidence in crimes of
violence is obvious enough to need no emphasis. The testing of blood is largely
chemical, more particularly since the anti-sera require for the biochemical test
need no longer prepared by the expert but may be purchased ready for use and
there is no doubt the chemist, by reason of his training and experience in
manipulation and his skill in testing and in general laboratory practice, is well
qualified to undertake this work than an ordinary medical practitioner. Blood
testing and legal cases, however, should only be under taken by those having
considerable experience in such work since issues of life and death may be
involved.

Blood Basics
Blood is a specialized body fluid. It has four main components: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Blood has
many different functions, including:

 transporting oxygen and nutrients to the lungs and tissues

 forming blood clots to prevent excess blood loss
 carrying cells and antibodies that fight infection
 bringing waste products to the kidneys and liver, which filter and clean the blood
 regulating body temperature

The blood that runs through the veins, arteries, and capillaries is known as whole blood, a mixture of about 55 percent plasma and
45 percent blood cells. About 7 to 8 percent of your total body weight is blood. An average-sized man has about 12 pints of blood in
his body, and an average-sized woman has about nine pints.

The Components of Blood and Their Importance

Many people have undergone blood tests or donated blood, but hematology - the study of blood - encompasses much more than
this. Doctors who specialize in hematology (hematologists) are leading the many advances being made in the treatment and
prevention of blood diseases.

9 Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology| Forensic 3

If you or someone you care about is diagnosed with a blood disorder, your primary care physician may refer you to a hematologist
for further testing and treatment.

Plasma
The liquid component of blood is called plasma, a mixture of water, sugar, fat, protein, and salts. The main job of the plasma is to
transport blood cells throughout your body along with nutrients, waste products, antibodies, clotting proteins, chemical messengers
such as hormones, and proteins that help maintain the body's fluid balance.

Red Blood Cells (also called erythrocytes or RBCs)

Known for their bright red color, red cells are the most abundant cell in the blood, accounting for about 40 to 45 percent of its
volume. The shape of a red blood cell is a biconcave disk with a flattened center - in other words, both faces of the disc have shallow
bowl-like indentations (a red blood cell looks like a donut).

Production of red blood cells is controlled by erythropoietin, a hormone produced primarily by the kidneys. Red blood cells start as
immature cells in the bone marrow and after approximately seven days of maturation are released into the bloodstream. Unlike
many other cells, red blood cells have no nucleus and can easily change shape, helping them fit through the various blood vessels in
your body. However, while the lack of a nucleus makes a red blood cell more flexible, it also limits the life of the cell as it travels
through the smallest blood vessels, damaging the cell's membranes and depleting its energy supplies. The red blood cell survives on
average only 120 days.

Red cells contain a special protein called hemoglobin, which helps carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body and then
returns carbon dioxide from the body to the lungs so it can be exhaled. Blood appears red because of the large number of red blood
cells, which get their color from the hemoglobin. The percentage of whole blood volume that is made up of red blood cells is called
the hematocrit and is a common measure of red blood cell levels.

White Blood Cells (also called leukocytes)

White blood cells protect the body from infection. They are much fewer in number than red blood cells, accounting for about 1
percent of your blood.

The most common type of white blood cell is the neutrophil, which is the "immediate response" cell and accounts for 55 to 70
percent of the total white blood cell count. Each neutrophil lives less than a day, so your bone marrow must constantly make new
neutrophils to maintain protection against infection. Transfusion of neutrophils is generally not effective since they do not remain in
the body for very long.

The other major type of white blood cell is a lymphocyte. There are two main populations of these cells. T lymphocytes help regulate
the function of other immune cells and directly attack various infected cells and tumors. B lymphocytes make antibodies, which are
proteins that specifically target bacteria, viruses, and other foreign materials.

Platelets (also called thrombocytes)

Unlike red and white blood cells, platelets are not actually cells but rather small fragments of cells. Platelets help the blood clotting
process (or coagulation) by gathering at the site of an injury, sticking to the lining of the injured blood vessel, and forming a platform
on which blood coagulation can occur. This results in the formation of a fibrin clot, which covers the wound and prevents blood from
leaking out. Fibrin also forms the initial scaffolding upon which new tissue forms, thus promoting healing.

A higher than normal number of platelets can cause unnecessary clotting, which can lead to strokes and heart attacks; however,
thanks to advances made in antiplatelet therapies, there are treatments available to help prevent these potentially fatal events.
Conversely, lower than normal counts can lead to extensive bleeding.

Complete Blood Count (CBC)

A complete blood count (CBC) test gives your doctor important information about the types and numbers of cells in your blood,
especially the red blood cells and their percentage (hematocrit) or protein content (hemoglobin), white blood cells, and platelets.
The results of a CBC may diagnose conditions like anemia, infection, and other disorders. The platelet count and plasma clotting tests
(prothombin time, partial thromboplastin time, and thrombin time) may be used to evaluate bleeding and clotting disorders.

Your doctor may also perform a blood smear, which is a way of looking at your blood cells under the microscope. In a normal blood
smear, red blood cells will appear as regular, round cells with a pale center. Variations in the size or shape of these cells may suggest
a blood disorder.

Where Do Blood Cells Come From?

Blood cells develop from hematopoietic stem cells and are formed in the bone marrow through the highly regulated process of
hematopoiesis. Hematopoietic stem cells are capable of transforming into red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. These
stem cells can be found circulating in the blood and bone marrow in people of all ages, as well as in the umbilical cords of newborn
babies. Stem cells from all three sources may be used to treat a variety of diseases, including leukemia, lymphoma, bone marrow
failure, and various immune disorders.

10 Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology| Forensic 3

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF BLOOD
1. As circumstantial or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator of the crime

Example: (Against the suspect) "A" was seen coming out from the house with a bloody knife on hand. Inside the house of a woman,
"B" was found dead with a stab wound at the back. Examination of the knife showed that the stain is of human blood and of the
same group as that of "B". With the foregoing result. there is a strong presumption that "A" stabbed "B".

(In favor of the suspect) "A" was accused for serious physical injuries. The evidence presented by the complainant is a blood stained
cloth allegedly worn by him when he was stabbed. Examination of the stain showed that it is not human blood. The evidence was
planted.

2. For disputed parentage

Example: Spouses "A" and "B" fled a habeas curpos proceedings to sook custody of the child "C who was also claimed as legitimate
child of spouses "D" and "E". Nomination of the blood of the parties showed the following results:

Blood group Blood type

“A” O MN
“B” O M
“C” B M
“D” O M
“E” B M

From the foregoing results, it is very clear that "C" cannot be the child of spouses "A" and "B" since group O parents cannot
have a group "B child, It is possible, however, for spouses "D" and "E" to be the parents.

3. Determination of the cause of death and the length of time that the victims survived the attack - The amount of blood or blood
stains in the scene of the crime or found on the clothes of the victim or inside the body of the deceased outside the blood vessels
may imply that the cause of death is severe hemorrhage. Sometimes the amount of blood on the clothing of the deceased may also
indicate which of the several wounds, if there are multiple wounds, was inflicted first.

When a person is dead, the blood pressure falls to zero and bleeding ceases so that dead bodies do not bleed. Therefore, the
amount of blood present around a dead body may give considerable indication as to how long life existed after the assault. The only
exception to this is where there is a large wound in such a position on the body that there will be drainage due to gravity.

This seepage is a mixture of blood, serum and frequently other materials. It is generally quit dark in color and may
accumulate in considerable quantity if the wound is large and ragged. If a body is found in which there has been a large pool of
blood which collected from comparatively small wounds, it indicates that person lived for a considerable length of time after the
attack and in many cases the actual cause of death is simply loss of blood. A body has a defense mechanism against excessive
bleeding in that as soon as bleeding starts in any considerable quantity, the blood pressure is automatically dropped, and this
consequently slows the rate of bleeding. In cases where death follows immediately from such sudden causes as a gunshot through
the heart, there is usually very little blood on or around the body.

4. Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant – The shape of the blood or blood stains will give the
investigator an idea of the direction of the source of the blood, When the blood strikes a smooth surface, it will often leave a Large
blot with one or two smaller ones trailing off in a straight line. This condition is caused by the blood coming from the direction of the
large to the small blots. In other words, the largest blot is made first and then the smaller ones afterwards. If a person was stabbed
in the neck he may stagger away leaving a trail of blood on the ground in the form of large drops. On the other hand, the deceased
may collapse at the place where he was stabbed and shed a large of blood around him. If a small artery is cut, the blood will spurt in
such a way that may form definite patterns. If the drop strikes at right angles, an irregularly circular stain with serrated edges is
produced; if it strikes obliquely, the stain will assume a shape similar to a bowling pin with the head of the pin in the direction of the
flight of the drop. Drops of spattered blood will form similar figures. In many instances it is possible to locate the source of these
flying drops by the patterns which they form on surfaces. If a person has been bleeding profusely and a struggle has taken place,
stains and smears of blood will be present over the floor, walls, and furniture.

5. Determination of the pain of the flow of blood - If a crime of violence has been committed and a suspect is apprehended with
blood stains on his body or clothing. he will often try to explain the presence of such blood by telling a tale about the blood
originating from nose, or from a wound caused color due the action of the acid gastric Juice. In the case of blood due to rape, semen
or hairs from the genitals may be found. Blood due to menstruation will show plenty of epithelial cells from the vagina. The presence
of such elements or foreign particles in blood may lead to a by accident or in case the suspect is a woman, from her menstruation.
blood groupings will not give results, it is Important to verify such a tale. It may be verified If the form and position of the stain
correspond with the tale, It will difficult to believe that blood stains on the rear of the coat or under an apron come from nose.
Likewise, blood from vagina or rectal region will usually stain the inside garments. A microscopic examination of the stain or of the
blood, If still fresh, may sometimes disclose the origin of the blood due to the presence of foreign particles. If the blood comes from
the nose, mucus or hairs from the nostrils may be present. Blood from the lungs will show numerous bubbles and If it comes from

11 Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology| Forensic 3

the stomach, it will be brownish in definite conclusion about the origin of the blood but their absence will not prove conclusively
that the blood did not come from the part of the body from which It was alleged to have come.

6. Determination of the approximate time the crime was committed - The age of the blood will indicate the approximate time the
crime was committed. Although there are some variations, the amount of coagulation, drying and change in color which has taken
place will determine the age of a blood stain. Blood from the arteries is bright red while blood from the veins is considerably darker
in color. However due to the fact that the blood pressure is much greater in the arteries than in the veins, if there is a wound of any
size, it is largely the bright red arterial blood which leaks out. If the amount of blood is very small the clot dries very rapidly and the
different changes are not easy to distinguish, but, If there is enough of it to make a small paddle, then after three to five minutes, the
blood will begin to clot and, after the clot is formed. It becomes a solid to such extent that a stick or pencil drawn to It will have a
definite mark in it. This period of drying will usually take from 12 to 36 hours depending upon the size of the cloth and external
conditions. As it continues to dry, the stains become darker in color, until, at the time it is completely dried it will have a dark brown
appearance. At this stage of the color changes the stains is about 10 to 12 days old. Beyond that the color will not change very
much. The change in color of the blood is due to the conversion of the red blood pigment hemoglobin into methemoglobin and
haematin.

Attention is, however, called to the fact that the above basis for the estimation of the age of blood is far from being accurate. The
clotting time, for example, is altered by many circumstances or influences. Cold retards it and heat accelerates it. It is more rapid on
a rough surface and slower on a smooth one. Oily substances may not only increase the clotting time, but may alter the appearance
of the blood. The change in color of the blood is also affected by some factors such as exposure to sunlight and chemical fumes.

CONSTITUTION OF BLOOD
Blood has been called the circulating tissue of the body. It is perhaps difficult to think of blood as a tissue, but in view of the
fact that in a cubic millimeter of a normal blood there are in the neighborhood of 5,000,000 red cells, this designation seems not
unreasonable. There are about 6 quarts of blood in a man of average size. It is made up of formed elements suspended in liquid
called plasma. The formed elements are the red cells (erythrocytes) or white blood cells (leucocytes), and the blood platelets. If
blood to which an oxalate has been added to prevent clotting is allowed to stand, the formed elements settle out leaving the plasma,
a straw- yellow colored liquid at the top.

About 65% of the blood is plasma and about 90% of the plasma is water. The 10% of solids in plasma is largely protein in
nature and consists of albumen, several globulins and fibrinogen. If clotted blood is allowed to stand for sometime, the clot
contracts, and a straw-yellow colored liquid called serum is squeeze out. Plasma and serum are terms often confused. Serum differs
from plasma in that it contains no fibrinogen since when blood clots, the protein fibrinogen is changed to an insoluble form called
fibrin.

PROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF BLOOD

1. Where blood has to be searched for?

This is a matter for the police or other investigating authority to attend to but since the search for blood-stained objects at the scene
crime or on the person or in the house of the suspect must be made carefully, it is advisable that the forensic chemist be assigned to
do the job. Unimportant as a small blood stain may appear among a number of larger stains, the determination of its origin may
have a great significance if, as sometimes happens, blood stains of more than one origin occur together, as for example when a knife
used for slaughtering hogs was used in stabbing a person. The blade of the knife will naturally have two kinds of blood, animal and
human blood.

When searching for blood stains attention should be directed not only to clothing and weapons, but also the finger nails,
lining of the pockets, seams and folds of the garments of the suspect. Blood is often found in places which are not directly visible as
for example under the edges of a table where the criminal may have wiped his hands; in the water trap of a sink where the criminal
may have washed his hands and where there still may be blood remaining in the water, on pieces of paper thrown into waste-paper
baskets, stove or toilet. On clothes that have been recently washed the seams should be cut open to ascertain if any blood may be
there. Even on well-rinsed clothing it may possible to detect blood. An absolutely white handkerchief may still contain blood be seen
when viewed although not visible to the naked eye but will readily under an ultra violet light. When searching for possible blood
stains in the scene of the crime, particular note should be taken or if possible, photograph the position, size and shape of any
suspicious stains found as those may furnish a guide to the direction in which the blood was spurting or in which the blood stained
object was moving or was being carried. Spraying from a cut artery causes extremely small stains which, except for the fact that
there are a great number very close together, appears like flea marks. In certain cases it is possible to find blood stain on a scrubbed
floor since blood may still be present on the cracks between floor boards. In cases of stabbing, the blade of the knife, while being
withdrawn is wiped by the edges of the wound and after drying, only a thin film of faint brown, oftentimes with dull luster may
remain. Sometimes the criminal wipes or washes the blood from the knife in which case the search must be directed to the junction
of the blade and handle as blood may run down where the tang fits into the handle, a point normally overlooked by criminals when
cleaning the weapon after the crime. Also wooden handles of weapon may have split or surface cracks which absorb blood and no
amount of cleaning even with the use of sandpaper will thoroughly remove the stain. Same is also true with metal or bone handles
where blood may be found in the crevices and grooves of the handle. The inside surface of the scabbard or leather sheath of a knife,
bolo or dagger must not also be overlooked when searching for blood. It has been experienced in the chemical laboratory of the

12 Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology| Forensic 3

National Bureau of Investigation to find traces of blood in the metal lining of the inside surface of a knife where the blade, outside
surface of the handle and the junction between the blade and handle were found negative for blood.

2. Collection, preservation, and transportation of specimen suspected to contain blood

In the handling of blood-stained evidence, it must be borne in mind that blood is a perishable substance and should be
treated accordingly. If the blood does not receive proper handling, it may putrefy in transit and arrive at the laboratory in a condition
unsuitable for a conclusive analysis.

In crimes of violence where blood grouping tests are very important, it is advisable, whenever possible, to obtain a liquid
sample of the victim's blood for comparison. The liquid sample, being easy type, will serve as control since too often garments
received In the laboratory are dirty and too soiled for a conclusive blood group determination. The liquid blood sample must be
placed in a sterile container and the stopper sealed with adhesive tape. The container is wrapped with cotton for insulation against
breakage and then placed in a cylindrical cardboard mailing tube or any rigid box of appropriate size. Refrigeration is not necessary
during the transit of the specimen.

If often happens that in the initial stages of the investigation of crimes of violence, the necessity for blood examination is
not apparent since no evidence necessitating blood examination has been found. Under these circumstances the body of the victim
is buried without a sample of blood taken during the autopsy. If the victim has no hospital or military service records and in the
event blood grouping comparison becomes necessary, there will be no means of ascertaining the victim's blood group unless the
stained clothing, if any, has been preserved. To avoid the possibility of such as occurrence, it is advisable to obtain a blood sample of
the victim at the time of the autopsy. The victim's blood group can be determined and make a matter of record for possible future
use.

In cases where dried blood stain is located on smooth surfaces such as walls, finished floors, table tops, glass or automobile
fenders, it is suggested that the blood be scrapped off with a clean knife or razor blade, care being taken not to include scrapings of
the surface. The scraping are placed in a pill box and sealed with tape. Envelopes or paper packets may be use as containers
provided precaution is taken to avoid loss of contents as a result of sifting through and unsealed comers. The use of exterior and
interior envelopes will minimize danger of loss by sifting.

In those instances where dried stains suspected to be blood appear on hard surfaces such as axes, hammer, knives, stones,
crowbars, etc., a protective cover is necessary before packing the specimen to prevent scraping of the stain by friction in the event
that the whole object is shipped to the laboratory. If the specimen is too bulky for removal as a whole, as for example, floor boards,
window frames, etc., it may be necessary to cut out the linoleum sheets, doors, blood stained area, but where this is done,
photographs should be made of the stains in situ prior to the collection. The stained portion is placed in clean cardboard box or
wrapped in a clean paper.

All things suspected to contain blood must be dried thoroughly before packing. Unless this is done, putrefaction is likely to
set in and render recognition of the origin of the blood either difficult or impossible. Exposure to the open air for a couple of hours
will be sufficient to dry the specimen. Hastening the drying process by exposure to the heat or sunlight should be avoided since heat
and sunlight may cause chemical changes in the blood which might prevent a complete analysis of the stain. Exposure of the clothing
to a fan for the purpose of expediting the drying is also undesirable. Some of the dried crust of blood adhering to the surface of the
fabric may be blown away by the air stream. After the blood stains on the clothes have been properly dried, they will remain in a
condition satisfactory for analysis for a long period of time. Each article of clothing must be packed separately to avoid possible
contamination. In packing, one should take special care never to place newspaper directly in contact with the stain.

Blood that has been absorbed by the soil at the scene of the crime may be dug up and placed in glass or enameled
container. Another procedure that recommended is to press down an open tin can into the soil over the blood, cleaning the soil
around the tin and inserting a metal plate of sufficient diameter below it. The whole can then is lifted and the tin and contained soil
sample firmly secured to the metal plate by the strips of adhesive tape.

Blood stains may be removed from glazed surface such as tiles, glass, or table tops or body of automobile by moistening a
small one inch square of white, unstarched cotton fabric with distilled water or physiological saline solution (0.9% solution of NaCl
and rubbing the stain off on to this. The fabric used should not be soaked and must be allowed to dry at room temperature before
packing. Certain authors notably Gross and Schneickert recommended that such stains be dissolved in water or saline solution and
then absorbed by blotting paper.

Stains on friable object such as plaster, dried leaves or mud require special packing. Unless this is done, the shaking in
transit causes such materials to crumble and the blood that originally was visible on the surface may also be hopelessly lost in a mass
of powder on arrival in the laboratory. Embedding in a mass of plasticine, stained side uppermost, and packing in a small cardboard
box with dry cotton and then in a larger box is recommended.

In the sealing of the specimen, care should be taken that gum, candle grease or sealing wax does not contaminate the
stains. Many hours are sometimes wasted by the chemist in a fruitless attempt to obtain a test for blood from what eventually
proved to be red sealing wax.

13 Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology| Forensic 3

 SCORE:

NAME:__________________________________ DATE/TIME: __________________

SUBJECT: ________________________________ SECTION: _____________________

ACTIVITY NO. 1
PRELIM
FORENSIC 3
Directions: Watch the Video and prepare a reaction paper.

General Instructions for writing reaction or response papers

The following guidelines are intended to give you some ideas about the sort of questions and
topics that you are expected to discuss in the paper as well as to help you in structuring the
text.

1. Introduce the paper

 Write a short synopsis of the paper.
 What makes it interesting and relevant in the course context?
 What makes it interesting and relevant for your personal learning objectives
and for your personal learning objectives?
2. Discuss the argument of the paper
 What is the paper about and what is the video trying to say?
 Who are the anticipated audience?

3. Conclude the paper

What impact did the paper have on you? What did you learn?

 Title: Importance of Chemistry in Life

 Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L2Q2q20KaEk

Rubrics for checking

14 Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology| Forensic 3

 God Bless future public servant . . .

SCORE:

NAME:__________________________________ DATE/TIME: __________________

SUBJECT: ________________________________ SECTION: _____________________

ACTIVITY NO. 2
PRELIM
FORENSIC 3

 Directions:
Explain each questions, before you begin writing, read the passage carefully and plan what
you will say. Your essay should be as well organized and as carefully written as you can
make it.

 1. In your own understanding what are the roles of Chemist in scientific criminal
investigation?

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________.
 2. Define the following words for each item
 Direct Evidence
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________.

15 Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology| Forensic 3

  Circumstantial Evidence
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________.

 Hearsay Evidence
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________.

SCORE:

NAME:__________________________________ DATE/TIME: __________________

SUBJECT: ________________________________ SECTION: _____________________

ACTIVITY NO. 3
PRELIM
FORENSIC 3

 Directions:
Explain each questions, before you begin writing, read the passage carefully and plan what
you will say. Your essay should be as well organized and as carefully written as you can
make it.

Define the following words for each item

 1. Real Evidence

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________.
 2. Testimonial Evidence

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________.
 3. Experimental Evidence

16 Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology| Forensic 3

 ___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________.

 4.Documentary Evidence

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________.

The end. . .

17 Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology| Forensic 3