‘Syllabus : Circulatory System : Blood and lymph, the structure and working of the heart, blood vessels, Circulation of blood (only names of the main blood vessels entering and leaving the heart, liver and kidney will be required). Lymphatic system. ‘Scope of Syllabus : = Composition of blood (structure and functions of RBC, WBC and platelets). = Brief idea of tissue fluid and lymph. = Increase in efficiency of mammalian red blood cells due to absence of certain organelles; reasons for the same. = A brief idea of blood coagulation, = Structure and working of the heart along with names of the main blood vessels entering and leaving the heart, the liver and the kidney. = Concepts of systole and diastole; concept of double circulation. = Brief idea of pulse and blood pressure. = Blood vessels : artery, vein and capillary to be ‘explained with the help of diagrams to bring out the relationship between their structure and function. © Brief idea of the lymphatic organs : spleen and tonsils. = ABO blood group system, Rin factor. _ © Significance of the hepatic portal system. ost all organisms, including huma, icinds of fluids circulating in they Such fluids constitute the distributing om | Supply substances) as well as a _ collecting system (to pick up substances) to and from the various parts of the body including the remotest cell. In this chapter, we will study about the circulating fluids in our body, their composition and function. 8.1 NEED FOR TRANSPORT INSiDg 7, BODY ; Every organ in our body requires the in of the circulating body fluids. For example : + The digestive system digests and abso, nutrients which are needed to be transporai to every cell of the body. The respiratory system draws in air, and ty oxygen picked up from it in the lungs hay be transported to all parts of the body Similarly, the CO, collected from the ent body has to be carried to the lungs tok exhaled out of the body. All the extra water, excess salts, and th nitrogenous wastes such as urea have toe removed from different parts and have to sent to the excretory system to be thrown! of the body. Hormones secreted by the endocrine sjst# have to be carried throughout the body! circulating blood to act wherever requite’# so on. Scanned with CamScanner7 jy such functions that need transport are ipod by the two circulating fluids - the blood er ymph. Besides transport, these fluids have nt yer functions also, s"uDS IN OUR BODY #2 eg are three principal Mud n our body : plood, contained in the heart and in the blood sessels (arteries, veins and capillaries) of the Grculatory’ system. “a _, qissue fluid, occupying spaces between cells in pe organs, » tymph, which is contained within lymph essels and lymphatic organs such as the spleen and the tonsil. ‘he above three principal fluids in our body are respectively described in section 8.3 (blood) and section 8.9.3 (tissue fluid and lymph). fig. 81 shows a diagrammatic representation of the relationship between blood, tissue fluid and smph as they circulate in their respective vessels or wes between the cells in different organs. Itis clear (il LUNes PUNONARY ARTERY PULMONARY VEIN [Deongenated bod) (Oxygenated blood) ARTERIES veins HEART BLOOD CAPILLARIES BLOOD 2 TISSUE FLUID LYMPH LYMPH NODE CAPILLARIES oR LYMPH ORGANS: LYMPH ___ Fig. 8.1 Diagrammatic representation of blood and 'ymph circulation (Red-oxygenated blood, Blue-deoxygenated blood). circulates Gm the diagram tat blood Danae blood n nner ie. all the is called a a ‘h a type of blood circulation his, in closed blood circulatory system. AS ag certain animals such as insects, the ered a flows through open spaces in the body, Mt open blood circulatory system. Their blood from the heart to body spaces without vesse's- ‘The colour differentiation Arteries — Red veins =| Conventionally in the diagrams, we show arteries in is Colour and veins in blue. This colour differentiation S A Wholly true. The oxygenated blood transported Ee arteries is bright red, but the deoxygenated ane a ‘transporting blood is dark red (certainly not biue). But ve ever look at the prominent veins on the arms or han especially of the old people outwardly they do look bluish ‘and that s due tothe less thicker muscular walls of the veins. lue Non-circulating fluids : There are also some other fluids located in particular organs such as synovial fluid filled in the cavities of skeletal joints, vitreous humour in the eye, etc. They do not circulate. 8.3 PROPERTIES OF BLOOD : THE BLOOD + Never Stationary — Blood is always in motion from the heart to the arteries and back through the veins. + Colour — The blood is a somewhat thick fluid, bright red when taken from an artery or dark red when taken from a vein. Volume — An average adult human has 5 to 6 litres of blood by volume in his body. ‘Taste - saltish — Perhaps we have all “tasted” our blood as in the case when there is a cut in the tongue or bleeding from the gums. It tastes saltish. The blood is slightly alkaline with a pH of 7.3 to 7.45 (7 is neutral, neither acidic nor alkaline). 8.5 FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD The main functions of the blood in our body can be treated under two broad headings: (A) Transport and (B) Protection, Scanned with CamScannerAL TR ANSPOR digested food substances, I TRY RLOOD (Transport of » Oxygen, carbon dioxide, excretory ‘ormones, body heat), "Transport of digested food from the alimentary canal to the tissues, These substances are Simple sugars like glucose, amino acids, vitamins, mineral salts, ete Transport of oxygen from the lungs to the Ussues. It occurs by means of red blood cells in combination with haemoglobin in the form of an unstable compound oxyhaemoglobin, which on reaching the tissues breaks up to deliver oxygen, Hb+0, <= HO, : oxyhaemoglobin. Transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. It occurs partly in combination With haemoglobin and partly as solution in blood plasma, - Hb +CO, = Hb-CO, carbaminohaemoglobin Transport of excretory material from the tissues to the liver, kidney or the skin for elimination or to render them harmless, Distribution of hormones secreted by special slands (endocrine glands) directly into the blood. Distribution of heat. The blood helps in Keeping the temperature of the body uniform by distributing heat. B. PROTECTION BY BLOOD 1. Blood forms a clot wherever there is a cut in a blood vessel. The clot serves to prevent (i) further loss of blood and (ii) the entry of disease-causing germs, " a 1 Name the two fluids that circulate in the body. 2. In a coloured diagram, why do we generally show the pulmonary artery in blue and pulmonary vein in red colour 2 3. Name any four substances transported by blood, 2. Its white blood corpuscles pr ‘on tect 4 diseases by engulfing bacteria when entered the body. mh 3, It produces antitoxins and ani, neutralise the poisonous Substances %, germs which enter the body, or cH 8.5 COMPOSITION OF BLOOD 7 The blood consists of : (i) Plasma - fluid part, constitutes 55.6 of blood. Mh, (i) Cellular elements ~ red and wi platelets, 40-45 per cent of blogg 8.5.1 PLASMA — The liquid portion The plasma isa light-yellow colo ley liquid. It mainly consists of : a Water 90 - 935 Proteins qi 7-89 Inorganic salts - i Other substances — Rees ‘The inorganic salts mainly inc} chloride and sodium bicarbonate, 5 substances contained in the plasma are yt amino acids, fibrinogen, hormones, urea yi. The plasma from which the protein fy, 7 has been removed is called serum, i 8.5.2 CELLULAR ELEMENTS (Fig, 42) The formed or cellular elements ofthe tg, (ie. shaped structures visible under magnifce are of three categories : (1) Red blood cells (erythrocytes) (2) White blood cells (leukocytes) (3) Blood platelets (thrombocytes) (1)RED BLOOD CELLS (RBCs) carriers ide sod Among of — The onge Red blood cells are also called erythrocys (erythros: red) These are minute biconcave disc-like struc flat in the centre and thick and rounded a periphery. (Ono eau Scanned with CamScannerP #1000 (eis ett ONE A.B. IN SECTION MITE BLOOD CELLS (STAINED) BASOPHIL, 3. PLATELETS a @ ee 42 Blood cells ~ 1. Red blood cells; 2. Various kinds of Fa Oe blood cells (after staining) and 3. Platelets, MONOCYTE, | yweHoovTE these are very small — about 7 micron in " qiameter (1 micron = one-thousandth of + milimetre and is represented by the symbol “) ‘The small size plus the concavities on either side wide a large surface area which makes them very efficient in absorbing oxygen. The small size enables the red blood cells to travel through very fine capillaries in the body where they have to travel in a single file. ‘An adult human male has about 5 million RBCs per cubic mm of blood and an adult female has slightly less, about 4.5 million. HAEMOGLOBIN is the effective chemical constituent of RBCs. The red blood cells have a calurless spongy body or stroma which contains a piratory pigment haemoglobin (Hib). The haemoglobin is formed of an iron- containing part (haemin) and a protein (globin), Ithas the ability to combine readily with oxygen ‘o form oxyhaemoglobin, an unstable compound Which readily gives up oxygen to the needy tissues, Leo Pe quantily of a very small Haemoglobin can carry a very small a rate « carbon dioxide in the form of haemoglobin, 7 bon Haemoglobin has very strong affinity for can monoxide forming a stable compound aoe moglobin (HbCO). This cuts down the capacil ies a blood of transporting oxygen, sometimes resuling | death, This is known as earbon monoxide poisonint For example, sleping near burning furnaces in $1 rooms without ventilation can result in car 01 monoxide poisoning and may even cause death. Isit correct to say that veins carry CO, and no oxygen? NO! Veins too earry oxygen but only a little less than the arteries! Inside the lungs, the haemoglobin (Hb) becomes 97-99 per cent saturated with oxygen. Inside the respiring tissues Hb releases only about 23% of its oxygen and the blood returning in veins still contains about 75% oxygen. Life and death of RBCs + In adults, the RBCs are produced in the marrow of long bones, especially in the ribs, breast bone and ilium of hip girdle. + In an embryo they are produced in the liver and spleen. + In children, the RBCs are produced in bone marrow of all bones until 5 years of age. + The mature red blood cells have no nuclei, but when they are being produced, they have one. As they mature, the nuclei are lost, i.e., they become enucleated. + The average life of an RBC is about 120 days. + The old and weak red blood cells are destroyed in the spleen, liver and bone marrow; their iron part is retained in the liver while the rest is excreted as a bile pigment (bilirubin). + Ina normal adult, approximately 2 million RBCs are destroyed every second. In other words, about 1 per cent of the total erythrocytes in the body are destroyed everyday. Scanned with CamScannerDEI ‘ FICIENT, BUT MORE EFFICIENT ! aie Red Blood Cells lammalian ted blood cells HRen Mature circulate in the lood system and are devoid of certain organelles. They have —no nucleus — ho mitochondria — No endoplasmic reticulum Thus, though deficient of the above organelles, the mature red blood cells, in reality, are more efficient in carrying out their task of picking up and delivering oxygen. The factors making them more efficient in this work are as follows 1. Loss of nucleus, makes the red § 4 cells biconcave, thus increasing their surface area volume ratio for absorbing more oxygen. { | | — Space in between increased — More RBCs can be accommodated in the same space 2. Loss of mitochondria means that the red cells cannot use oxygen for themselves (cellular respiration occurs in mitochondria). Thus all the ‘oxygen, absorbed from the lungs, is transported and delivered to the tissues unconsumed. Secondly, loss of mitochondria means full transport of glucose in blood plasma, unused by the RBCs. 3. No endoplasmic reticulum means increased flexibility of RBCs for their movement through narrow capillaries. More about the number of RBCs + New born infants have a larger number of RBCs — about 6-7 million per cubic millimetre (1 mm?). + RBC count is lowered by 5% during sleep. | + RBC count is higher during physical activity, pregnancy and emotional upsets. People living at height of 4,200 mand above, increase their RBCs by nearly 30%. Abnormally increased number of RBCs is called Polycythaemia, and their abnormally decreased number is known as Erythropeni { (2)WHITE BLOOD CELLS (WBCs) — White blood cells, or leukocytes (leuko : white), differ from red blood cells in having a nucleus and not containing haemoglobin. Their number is much less, usually about 4000-8000 per mm? of blood. are amoebold and «gy Most WBCs are amoeboid ang , pseudopodia with which they ¢” Oy, through the walls of the capiigric’ “uy tissues (diapedesis dia + across, peggy, My out) (Fig. 8.3). ol pased on shape and other character white blood cells are classified ing 4%, categories (granular and non-granyla,y” 1s ‘Table 8.1 gi ) ang it distinct types (Table 8:1 given on nex 24, Fig. 8.2) as follows : Bn Fig. 89. A white blood cell oozing out blood vessel (diapedesis) White Blood Cell Or White Celis? ‘The better term is “white cells” or leukocytes (le white) because they spend most of their time, tissue fluid or in the lymph and very lite ¢ about 10%) in the blood. (0s), ie og Origin and life of WBCs : ‘The WBCs are produced in red bone may Iymph nodes and sometimes even in liver ag spleen. Their average life is about two veek 4, neutrophils live for only a few hours, and sho billion neutrophils are produced each day. The and worn out WBCs are destroyed in the say manner as the RBCs. Leukemia is a cancer of the tissue forming Wo whose number increases manifold at the cos RBCs, It is usually a fatal disease, Currently, te treatment is only blood transfusion. Leukopenia is the abnormal decrease in the num of WBCs, | gee ee Functions Of Leukocytes (WBCs) — B¢ defence 1. Phagocytosis : This is a process in which WBCs and particularly the neutrophil particle-like solid substances, espe bacteria, This is a defensive mech against disease germs. An abnormal is Tontonon ous Scanned with CamScanneri RTI Ec sis) Sic) ce Qu) TUNE) Fonceat) Sic 3 1. Neutrophils se pets (62%) + Nucleus with Engulf por 34 lobes bacteria marrow + Granular (Phagocytosis) cytoplasm + Stain with neutral d 2. Eosinophils = (23%) + Nucleus with + Engulf Bone | [count 2lobes bacteria. | marrow increases in ‘+ Large cytoplasmic] + Secrete allergies] granules antitoxins + Stain dark red + Associated with eosin with allergy | (acid dye) | 3. Bi il | rae + Nucleus large and | Release Bone | indistinctly chemicals, marrow | lobed (histamine) for | + Granules stain | inflammation | with basic dyes | which dilate | (eg. methylene | blood vessels | blue) 5, Non-granulat 4. Lymphocytes, + Smallest of Produce Bone marrow + Groplasm without 7 (3086) wacs antibodies] and Lymph aeanules + Single large glands + asingle large nucleus nucleus (spleen, tonsils, etc.) 5. Monocytes + Largest of WBCs | Ingest Bone (63%) + Nucleus large, | germs marrow kidney-shaped + At the site of infection, transform into macrophages in WBC count up to about 50,000 or more per Pus is mainly composed of the dead white cubic mm indicates some infection in the blood cells together with the tissue cells body. destroyed by the bacteria. 2 Inflammation : Inflammation occurs due to 3, Formation of antibodies : The WBCs (specially the reaction of tissues to injury and to localized the lymphocytes) produce antibodies which invasion of germs. ‘The inflamed spot has kill or neutralise the germs, or the poisons several characteristics: increased local from them. Introducing weakened germs or heat, redness, swelling, pain, etc. Here the germ substances (vaccines) during vaccination leucocytes (specially the monocytes and stimulates formation of particular antibodies neutrophils) migrate through the walls of the which, at a later period, would destroy the Sood vessels by diapedesis (Fig. 8.3), and fight particular disease-causing germs if they enter against disease-causing germs. They also into the body. destroy the damaged cells by phagocytosis. mg _______—_& Scanned with CamScannerANTIBODIES and “ANTITOXINS” wi pes Sei) germs gain entry into the aa led toxins’ (he Produce poisonous substances iyo ins (meaning poisons). In response, the eeneevtes of the blood produce chemical st ese 2 antibodies which circulate freely m plasma. The antibodies are specific to 'e toxins for which they are produced. The antibodies act as antitoxins which neutralise (Getoxity) the poisonous effect of the toxins. Antibodies may persist long after the disease has been overcome, and the person who has Tecovered becomes immune to the disease. This is the underlying principle of vaccination (a deliberate introduction of weakened disease germ to stimulate production of the specific antibodies). (3)BLOOD PLATELETS (Thrombocytes) (Initiators of clotting of blood) Blood platelets are minute oval or round structures, non-nucleated, floating in the blood. These are about 200,000 to 400,000 per cu. mm. of blood in an adult. The platelets are derived from some giant cells called megakaryocytes in the red bone marrow. These are budded off from the megakaryocytes in a manner that each one is completely surrounded with membrane. ‘Their life span is 3 to 5 days and are destroyed mainly in the spleen (a lymphatic organ located in the abdomen). They are very important in clotting of blood. At the site of injury, the platelets disintegrate to release a chemical substance thrombokinase which initiates the process of clotting of blood. (2) _ (Progressicheck 1. Name the following : () The yellow coloured fluid part of the blood. (il) The respiratory pigment contained in RBCs. (ii) Any two organelles absent in mature RBCs. (iv) The process of WBCs squeezing out through the walls of the blood capillaries. 2. Mention the following : (i) Average life span of RBCs. (ii) Range of RBCs per mm? in a normal adult human female. (ili) The two major categories of WBCs. (iv) Blood cells involved in leukaemia, 8,6 FUNCTIONS OF PLATELETS _ But soon a cot i formed on the wound je, the flow of blood is stopped. IF it were °° injur caled coagulation) occurs in series tes 28 fl 1 2 CLOTTING OF BLOOD (Conguy, When a blood vessel is cut, blood esc Ty mi ot a8 ‘The injured tissue cells and the , which disintegrate at the site of they release a substance thrombokinase (4), "y thromboplastin). (More recently it) %y “Bactor X” or Stuart factor). cay ‘The thrombokinase acts a8 an enzyme g, the help of the calcium ions preseny big plasma, it converts a substance Proth,, te (inactive) of the plasma, into thre (active). Vitamin K, a fat-soluble yitan ttt essential for the production of prothronj" ‘Thrombin in the presence of calcium iong with the soluble fibrinogen of the bless convert it into insoluble fibrin. Fibrin jg. substance that forms threads. These mcr! threads of fibrin are sticky and form a ney (mesh) at the wound ed person would bleed to death, cy |. Blood cells are trapped in the network of ty 7 fibrin; the network then shrinks and que out the rest of the plasma which is in the fn of a clear liquid, the serum. The solid na which is left behind is called clot (or thromba, reDsiomcat eae = a PLATELET 4 Eexooo vss PLATELET PLUG Ses @ some -O-O.Ous t FIBRIN THREADS niecoe ‘brn trap a Geer | Ona) MAST Fig. 8.4 Blood clotting Scanned with CamScannera reactions in blood clotting ai To nssve OU A NATELETS i t ‘RELEASE ‘TUROMBOKINASE jpn HONPOPLASTIN'ON FACTOR foMst re07QnoN “cavons THROMBIN oon eas) wenn) a en ens oni cence SONNET sotueLe ns oe | FORMS A NeTWo OF STICKY THREADS ot8es in blood clotting : ee of blood in blo corpuscles Plasma Fibrin tot 00D CLOTTING IN A TEST-TUBE yesome blood is taken in a test-tube, a clot will ‘ym in the ‘usual way and the serum squeezed out fae clot will collect on the surface (Fig. 8.5). THREADS F485 Left, coagulated blood; the fresh clot consists of fibrin stands, corpuscles and serum. Right, coagulated blood after staing for some time; clot has separated from the serum. (sy diagrammatic) ltisa wrong notion that clotting is dependent on ‘te exposure of blood to air. In fact, clotting can be cused by the movement of blood over a rough sufice as on cholesterol deposit on the inside of a bod vessel, Psion Haemophilia is a genetic disorder i does nat clot re “Iye to lack of blood- _ fa [Siew ll a “1c Rh cystem : The blood of most people contains a substance called Rh factor. (Rh stands for Rhesus, our common monkey, in which the factor was first discovered). When the blood of such an individual (Rh~ positive) is transfused into persons lacking it (Rh negative), the blood of the recipient develops an antibody for Rh substance (gets sensitized) within about two weeks of transfusion. Now, if a second transfusion be given to such Rh-negative person, the antibody produced by the first transfusion causes a reaction with the transfused blood, which may even lead to death. ‘This is similar to the development of an allergy. Rh factor in pregnancy : An Rh-negative woman ay become sensitive if she carries an Rh-positive child in her uterus (when the husband is Rh-positive). The first Rh-positive child will be normal, but if it “y sensitizes the mother, the second positive fonceived soon, may have a problem, <4, hilt Ieading to the death of foetus and abortion, Metin, Rh-positive may be wrilten in sho or Urge and similarly the Rh-negatie’ Bb, oF ten as Rh-ve or a8 Rh}, People with gy have D antigens on the surface of | i Rh- blood group lack these ang ng, group people with (PY) progress (Check: 1. State which ofthe following statements agg, () Process of coagulation starts wi (® Pease of a substance from RBG," the ji Blood fails t0 clot readily in the ¢ deficiency of calcium. ai The solid fibrin and thrombin are (The same thing 08 ang (iv) The clear liquid that 00269 out atte, formation of @ clot Is serum, be 2, Name the following : i) The category of vitamin requi Jetting of blood. Quited fg, i) Any two diseases related with blood coy (ii) The antibodies present in the plist 0 type blood group. a (iv) The animal for which Rh stands j context of blood group. in the £286 y 8.8 BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ‘The circulatory system consists of heart, bag and blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillrg 8.8.1 The Heart Location (not on the left side, but it is fetsq The heart is right in the centre between they lungs and above the diaphragm, The narrow ed the roughly triangular heart is pointed to the let sit (Fig. 8.6) and during working, the contraction ots heart is most powerful at this end giving a feel that the heart is on the left side. Covering : The heart in adult humans is the size of our closed fist - 12 cm in length 9 cm in width, It is protected by a double wa membranous covering called pericardium ! contains lubricating pericardial fluid which redat friction during heart beat and protects it foe mechanical injuries. Mien en Scanned with CamScanner