Morris-Musical Contour

Society for Music Theory
New Directions in the Theory and Analysis of Musical Contour

Author(s): Robert D. Morris
Source: Music Theory Spectrum, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Autumn, 1993), pp. 205-228
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Music Theory
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/745814
Accessed: 04-04-2020 20:10 UTC
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New
NewDirections
Directionsin the
inTheory
the Theory
and Analysis
and Analysis
of Musical Contour
ROBERT D. MORRIS
Musical
Musicalcontour
contour is one
is one
of the
of most
the most
generalgeneral of pitch of Michael
aspects aspects pitch Friedmann, Larry Polansky, and myself.3 My work,
perception,
perception, prior
prior
to the
to the
concept
concept
of pitch
of or
pitch
pitchorclass,
pitch which
forclass, for defines "contour-spaces" with its various entities and
it
it is
isgrounded
grounded only
only
in ain
listener's
a listener's
abilityability
to hear topitches
hear aspitchesrelations,
as has been extended by Elizabeth Marvin and Paul
relatively
relatively higher,
higher,equal,
equal,
or lower,
or lower,
withoutwithout
discerning
discerning
the ex- theLaprade.4
ex- While my aim was in part to provide a secure
act
act differences
differences between
betweenand among
and amongthem. them.
Yet, until
Yet,rather
until rather
foundation for the articulation of compositional designs of
recently,
recently,music
musictheorists
theorists
have have
paid little
paid attention
little attention
to contour pitch classes, Friedmann and Marvin have been more con-
to contour
relations. This is somewhat understandable since contour, cerned with developing a methodology for the study of con-
especially melodic contour, remained largely an aspect of tour associations in post-tonal music.5 In this way, their work
musical diction until the beginning of the twentieth century. mirrors the extents and limits of atonal theory of pitch-class
But in much twentieth-century music, especially in the works (pc) sets. In addition, David Lidov and Jim Gabura have
of Edgard Varese, Iannis Xenakis, and Gy6rgy Ligeti, con- considered certain formal aspects of contour in their con-
tour has been generalized beyond melody and may play an struction of an algorithm for writing melodies.6
important structural role in a specific composition or reper-
toire.
Apart from work by a few ethnomusicologists,' and a text- 3See Friedmann, "A Methodology for the Discussion of Contour: Its
Application to Schoenberg's Music," Journal of Music Theory 29 (1985):
book by Robert Cogan and Pozzi Escot,2 the foundations for
223-48; Morris, Composition with Pitch-Classes: A Theory of Compositional
a theory of contour were advanced in the later 1980s by Design (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1987); and Polansky,
"Morphological Metrics: An Introduction to a Theory of Formal Distances"
1See Mieczyslaw Kolinski, "The Structure of Melodic Movement: A New in Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference (San Fran-
Method of Analysis," Studies in Ethnomusicology 2 (1965): 96-120; Charles cisco: Computer Music Association, 1987).
R. Adams, "Melodic Contour Typology," Ethnomusicology 20 (1976): 179- 4See Marvin and Laprade, "Relating Musical Contours: Extensions of a
215; and Charles Seeger, "On the Moods of a Music-Logic," Journal of the Theory for Contour," Journal of Music Theory 31 (1987): 225-67.
American Musicology Society 8 (1960): 224-61. For a review of these articles SSee Friedmann, "Methodology"; Friedmann, "A Response: My Con-
and other earlier discussions of melodic contour see Elizabeth West Marvin, tour, Their Contour," Journal of Music Theory 31 (1987): 268-74; Elizabeth
"A Generalization of Contour Theory to Diverse Musical Spaces: Analytical West Marvin, "The Perception of Rhythm in Non-Tonal Music: Rhythmic
Applications to the Music of Dallapiccola and Stockhausen" in Musical Plu- Contours in the Music of Edgard Varese," Music Theory Spectrum 13 (1991):
ralism: Aspects of Aesthetics and Structure Since 1945 (forthcoming). 61-78; and Marvin, "A Generalization of Contour Theory."
2See Cogan and Escot, Sonic Design: The Nature of Sound and Music 6See David Lidov and Jim Gabura, "A Melody Writing Algorithm Using
(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1976). a Formal Language Model," Computers in the Humanities 3-4 (1973): 138-48.
206 Music Theory Spectrum
This
This study
studybegins
beginswith
with
a review
a review
of the
ofstate
the state
of contour
of contour CAS.8
CAS.8AnAn array
array
of contour
of contour
intervals,intervals,
called a COM-matrix,
called a COM-matrix
theory
theoryandanditsits
application
application
to analysis.
to analysis.
A brief
A brief
study study
of aspects
of aspects
has
hasthe
thefunction
function
of theof
interval-vector
the interval-vector
in pc-set theory.
in pc-set
The theory. Th
of
of Arnold
ArnoldSchoenberg's
Schoenberg's Piano
Piano
PiecePiece
Op. 19
Op.No.194 No.
will 4
show
will show
contour
contour interval
interval
from from
the ath the
member
athtomember
the bth member
to the ofbth member of
how
how contour
contourtheory
theory
andand
standard
standard
versions
versions
of pc-set
of pc-set
and trans- a contour is located in the intersection of the COM-matrix's
and trans-
formational theories can interact. ath row and bth column.
The second section of the study introduces a new analytic Contours need not be of pitches in time. As Example 2
tool, the contour reduction algorithm. Relations among theshows, the contour <1 3 0 2> can be interpreted as pitches,
contour reductions of the six phrases of the Schoenberg piece dynamics, or chord densities in time. As we will see later,
help unify the composition in a satisfying and remarkable contours need not even be temporal.
way: pitch classes and their sets brought out by contour hi- Some of the properties of a COM-matrix are illustrated in
erarchies are related to each other as well as to other adjacent
Example 3. The matrix's main diagonal is the series of zeros
pc sets by abstract intersection and complement relations. descending from its upper left hand corner. The CAS or INT,
The issues raised in the analysis warrant a comparison ofis always given on the diagonal to the right of the main di-
the contour reduction algorithm with the familiar family agonal.
of These features and others, like the plus/minus sym-
reductive models for tonal music. In addition, the properties metry around the main diagonal, show that the COM-matrix
of an algorithm developed by James Tenney and Larry Po-is exactly analogous to a row table or T-matrix in atonal
lansky (which parses sequences of musical "events" into par- theory.
titioned and hierarchically embedded streams) are cited asGiven the wealth of all possible contours, it is useful to
both an adjunct and foil to contour analysis.7 define equivalence relations in order to group contours into
The third part of the study is an elaboration of the most types or equivalence classes. The most important kinds of
general definition of contour: the association of two sets. equivalence are two. The first is founded on similitude. This
Contours that include replication and simultaneities are de-kind of similarity is based on identical COM-matrices, since
fined by various categories of mathematical relation theory. two contours that have the same overall shape share the same
The result is a complete taxonomy of all contour types. COM-matrix. A set of equivalent contours is called a cseg.9
The present image of contour theory involves the contour, See Example 4.
an ordered set of n distinct (contour-)pitches, with or without The other criterion for equivalence involves transforma-
repetitions, numbered (not necessarily adjacently) in ascenttional relations. Two different contours or csegs are trans-
from x to y (x< y). Normalized contours are numbered from formationally equivalent if they are related by identity, ret-
0 to n - 1. Contours can be written as strings of integers or rograde, inversion, and/or retrograde-inversion, to within the
as graphs (see Ex. 1). Contour intervals, denoted by the signs
- (descending), 0 (equal), or + (ascending), can be con- 8The INT1 of a contour corresponds to the INTi of pc-set theory; INT,
catenated to produce an INT, or what Friedmann calls aof the ordered pc set X lists the successive ordered pc intervals between the
pcs of X. See Morris, Composition. Friedmann's equivalent term CAS stands
for Contour Adjacency Series. See Friedmann, "Methodology."
9All equivalent contours reduce to the same contour when normalized.
7See Tenney and Polansky, "Temporal Gestalt Perception in Music,"
This normalized contour can be used to name the cseg. In Example 4. the
Journal of Music Theory 24 (1980): 205-41. three equivalent contours reduce to <0 2 3 1>.
Theory and Analysis of Musical Contour 207
Example 1. Contours: notation and concepts Example 3. COM-matrix of < 0 3 1 2 >
main
maindiagonal diagonal
0 + + +
contour of X :< 0 2 3 1 > graph of X - 0 - -
- + 0 +
INT1 or CAS (contour adjacency series) of X : + + - >

- >+ 0 INTI of
COM-matrix ofX :
0 + + + row 1 Example
Example 4. A cseg: equivalent
4. Acontours
cseg:
withequivale
the same COM-
- 0 + - row 2 matrix
matrix(C4 = 0) (C4 = 0)
- - 0 - row 3
- + + 0 row 4
i ls? , a t b-I
1 2 3 4
columns
0 4 15 2> <7 9 10 8> <-4 8 12 3>
Example 2. Contour < 1 3 0 2 > interpreted

O + + + as ...
0 + -
1)
1)pitches
pitches
in time in
2) time
dynamics in time 3) chord densities in time
- 0
A I
+ + 0
P ff pp f
Example
Example 5. Contour
5. Contour
transformations
transformations
R: reverses contour
first definition of equivalence. Example 5 defines the R, I, and
RI transformations on contours. Sets of transformationally I: inverts contour; each pitch x in the cont
equivalent contours or csegs are called cseg classes. Example pitch n - x in the inverted contour; n is
6 lists the four members of a cseg class. The example also pitch in the contour
shows that operations on the members of a cseg class are
RI: I and R at once
Example 6. The four members of a cseg class (after Marvin and Laprade)
graphs: P= <0 1 3 2> I = < 3 2 0 1> RI=< 0 2 3> R=<2 3 1 0>
COM-matrices:
0 + + + 0 - - - 0 - + + 0 +
- 0 + + + 0 + 0 + + - -
- - 0 - + + 0 + - - + + + 0 -
- - + 0 + + - - - - 0 + + +
Rctli raude Exchange and
Exchange = exchange matrix ent
Flip = flip matrix entries around
mirrored by operations
nality n? on
For ea
in
should be clear contours
that the of
cseg thr
cla
in twelve-tone are just
theory. two.eac
Thus Th
or normal form. And,
of the assixin row
csegs
number of classes
contours inlabeled
a cseg in
c
bers are C,
invariant D, and the
under E form
RI
members, as shown in Examp
RI-invariant cla
Once we have enumerated
the notion of the
a c
ask, how many pitch
cseg replicatio
classes are
Example 7. RI-invariant contour Example 9. Enumeration of cseg classes
card
card #csegs* #cseg
#csegclasses** #RI classes
classe
2 2 1 1
3 6 2 1
4 24 8 4
<0 2 1 3 >
5 120 32 4
6 720 192 24
I R **
#csegs
#csegs
= (card)! = 4(#classes)
= - (card)!
2 (#RI classes) = 4(#
P= <0 2 1 3 >-> <3 1 2 0>-> <0 2 1 3>=RI<0 2 1 3>=P
**each class has two or four members
Example 8. The six csegs of cardinality 3;brief

brief
two melodic
melodic
cseg figure
figuremarked
marked
classes leicht.
leicht.
Phrases
Phrases
are labeled
are labeled
in the
in th
score with double vertical lines. Phrase boundaries conform
A: <0 1 2> = RI(A) class 3-1 to traditional criteria: slurs and other forms of articulation,
B: <0 2 1> class 3-2
punctuating gaps, shape, and referential affinity.
C: <1 0 2> = RI(B) class 3-2
Markings on Example 10 show the prevalence of the 3-2
D: <1 2 0> = R(B) class 3-2
[0,1,3] trichord throughout; brackets show pcs that articulat
E: <2 0 1> = I(B) class 3-2
members of 3-2.10 Of course, there are other set-class con-
F: <2 1 0> = R(A); RI(F) class 3-1
nections in the piece. The more important of these are shown
in Example lla. Of the set classes listed in the example, the
two that do not contain 3-2 have special roles in the piec
given
given in
inExample
Example9.9.
AAformula
formula
hashas
been
been
added
added
that that
shows
shows
The 4-19 [0,1,4,8], that favorite of Second Viennese Scho
how the number of RI-invariant classes influences the total
composers, unites phrases 1 and 4 as octave-related replicas,
number of cseg classes for each n. The formula also explains
and punctuates the end of the second phrase. Three of th
why the number of cseg classes blows up so quickly as n instances of 4-23 and its subset 3-9, which maximize ic5
increases; the number of classes is based on the number of
(indeed, they are made up of cycles of interval 5s), involve
distinct contours of cardinality n, which is n! It is not relevant
to the present article to review contour theory at any greater
length, but the theory continues in the manner of pc-set the- iOMost of the 3-2 set-class members are found adjacently in the piece.
ory, considering similarity and inclusion among csegs and A few noncontroversial, nonadjacent articulations are shown with explana-
cseg classes whose members are without replication. tion, such as the registrally adjacent G#, Bb, and B~ over the last four mea-
To see how contour theory can inform analysis, let us sures. Among other hidden articulations of 3-2, not notated in the example
is the F$ and chord <C G B D E> in m. 11. The first F# and the chord's
examine Schoenberg's Piano Piece, Op. 19 No. 4. Example
outer voices form the set {Fp G E}, and the inner voices comprise the set {B
10 provides an annotated score. The piece is set in the manner C D.}; both sets are members of 3-2. This segmentation resonates with the
of a recitative with six phrases of diverse character punctuated distinction between maxima/minima versus mid pitches in a contour to be
by chords and in one case, in mm. 5-6, accompanied by a developed later.
Example 10. 3-2 [0,1,3] set classes in Schoenberg's Piano Piece, Example lla. Set classes in Op. 19 No. 4
Op. 19 No. 4
m. 1 m.4 m. 10
(contour) A ,O -- n
4-19
phrase 1 A Bb phrase 2
[0,1,4,8]
(1) --(2) C > (3) ID D C'
Rasch, aber leicht (J) f
A^ bL '- L / 7- L[ n IH 1 - r PF:f9 m.2
mm.
mm.2-3
2-3m.8
m.8tJltJl
A -r -, _ .
4-29
I^I P - [0,1,3,71
Db C A mm. 1-2 mm. 2-3 m. 7 m.2 mm. 7-8
4^~ii ~--- t
phrase 3 4-3
(4) (5) (6) [0,1,3,4]
poco rit. -leicht -

m. 3 m. 4 m. ll m. ll m.6
-- r1 ~: . 3-9[0,2,7
4-23
[0,2,5,7] w~~~~~~~~A Iz M;.
Cib. C Eb c
ID C Eb6
Example llb. Transformations in Op. 19 No. 4
(7) (8) (9)
. ' tY k C
mm. 2-3 mm. 7-8
A
T5 .-(t e-
11 0 . -
tt- ",, > v "' _~ff
poco ri~t J ---.l __3

mm. 3-5 m. 10
phrase 4 phrase 5 phrase 6

(10) () .(12) (13)
- t- - n- - l'i-h- - - -
f 3r 3a\ ....
mm. 1-2 mm. 2-3 m. 3 m. 6
'fmartellato i . ff 'f fff

Jm - artel,o L3~ V 'octaton3 lc
octatom8 set
8-28
registrally adjacent pcs
the
the same
samepcs:
pcs:the
the
pitches
pitches
of the
of the
second
second
beat of
beat
m. of m. 3 are Example 12. Contour affiliations in Op. 19 No. 4
3 are
transposed
transposedbyby
octaves
octaves
in m.
in 4m.
and4 and
merely
merely
permuted
permuted
in m. 6.11
in m. 6.11
From
Fromaatransformational
transformational point
point
of view,
of view,
threethree
transposi-
transposi- m. 1 m. 6 m. 10
tions
tionsform
formthe
theweb
web
of of
relations
relations
shownshown
in Example
in Example
1lb. T5 1lb.
and T5 and A ix. =-aaaam
T6
T6 operate
operateonon
larger
larger
strings
strings
of pitch
of pitch
classes.
classes.
T3 forms
T3 forms
cycles cycles
of
of interval
interval3 3connecting
connecting
instances
instances
of the
of3-2
theset
3-2
class
setand
class and O 1 0> '0 1 O> 0 1 0'>0 1 O0>i
<0 1 0> <0 1 0> <0 1 0><0 1 0>
forms
formsoctatonic
octatonic subsets
subsets
among
among
the melodic
the melodic
notes notes
and theand the
accompanying
accompanying diminished
diminished
chords
chords
of m.of6.m.
It is
6. interesting
It is interesting
to to m. 1 m. 4
f '."
see
see that
thatthe
thethree
threetransformations,
transformations,
if operating
if operating
at onceatononce
a on a .. _ ,
single
singlepitch
pitchclass,
class,
would
would
produce
produce
a 3-2a sonority.
3-2 sonority.
In addition,
In addition,
the
the transpositional
transpositional moves
moves
helphelp
explain
explain
the internal
the internal
intervalinterval <4 3 0 2 1> <4 3 0 2 1>
construction of set classes not related to 3-2: 3-9 and 4-23
via T5; 4-29 from T3 and T6.12 m. 1
A
While there can be no doubt that specific set classes and
transpositions help unify the composition, the last measures,v L^ I l L
the domain of the last phrase, lack set-class connection with
<1 3 2 0><1 3 2 0>
the rest of piece. The only obvious referents are the 3-2 and
3-9 set classes pointed out earlier; nevertheless, the three pcs
are picked out of the notes of the last two phrases.
Let us now turn to contour affiliations in the piece. These
<0 2 3 1>
are shown in Example 12. Each line of the example shows
contour connections via the two types of equivalences ex-
plained before. The top line shows the use of the contour
'3 2 0I 1> 3 2 0 1 c3 O 1>RI
<0 1 0> to connect the beginning of the first phrase (m. 1)
<3 2 0 1> <3 2 0 1> <3 2 0 1>
to the melodic accompaniment of the opening of the third <3 2 0 1-
phrase in m. 6 and to the construction of the fourth phrase <1 0 32> <2 0 1 3>
in m. 10.13
"Other set classes can be found, such as 4-1 [0,1,2,3] (see mm. 10-11), 1 2 3 0-
but I have left these out to keep this discussion basic.
12If we take the two pcs x and y from any member of 4-29 that do not \ t
form an ic3 or ic6, the remaining two pcs are always the T3 (or T9) and T6 m.
m.7 7 . 11 <2 3 0 I>
of x and y, respectively or vice versa.
'3This line of the example makes two other points. First, that I often prune
vi -0 .
~E1zm
"passing tones" in contours. This is, of course, open to question, but I will
soon develop such reductions more formally. Second, that the <0 1 0> con- 2 3 0
> <1 2 3 0>
tour involves a nonadjacent repetition. Such contours are not fully discussed
or enumerated in contour theory as it now stands.
'3 0
<3 < 1
1
2> . ^ ^)y
The
The other
otherlines
lines
of of
Example
Example12 show
12 show
more more
contourcontour
rela- rela- Example 13. Contour-Reduction Algorithm
tions.
tions.Lines
Linestwo
twoandand
three
three
showshow
that that
phrases
phrases
1 and 21are
and 2 are
The algorithm prunes pitches from a contour until it is reduced
related
relatedbybythe
the<4 <4
3 03201>2 and
1> and
<1 3 <1
2 0>3 contours.
2 0> contours.
The nextThe next
to a "prime."
three
threelines
linesshow
show
a more
a more
intricate
intricate
set ofset
connections
of connections
involving
involving
contours
contours<3<32 0 2 1>,
0 1>,
<0 2<03 21>,
3 and
1>, <1
and0 3<12>0and
3 2>
their their csegDefinition: Maximum pitch: Given three adjacent pitches in a
andcseg
classes. The contour transformations involved are R and RI. contour, if the second is higher than or equal to the others it is
a maximum. A set of maximum pitches is called a maxima. The
These contour connections compensate for the failure of con-
first and last pitches of a contour are maxima by definition.
junct pc relations to unify the last section with the rest of
piece. For instance, the first four notes of the sixth phrase Definition: Minimum pitch: Given three adjacent pitches in a
have the same contour as the last four notes of the fifth contour, if the second is lower than or equal to the others it is
phrase; so the two phrases are bridged by the repetition of a minimum. A set of minimum pitches is called a minima. The
the <1 2 3 0> contour. In addition the third phrase ends with first and last pitches of a contour are minima by definition.
the same contour. Algorithm: Given a contour C and a variable N:
Our investigation of Op. 19 No. 4 points out that a com-step 0: Set N to 0.
bination of contour and pc analysis can help us understand
step 1: Flag all maxima in C; call the resulting set the max-list.
continuity and coherence in a composition.We have also seen
step 2: Flag all minima in C; call the resulting set the min-list.
that looking for similar and/or equivalent contours is in anal-
ogy to looking for pc sets and set classes. Yet to switch from
step 3: If all pitches in C are flagged, go to step 9.
pc to contour analysis, or, vice versa, to make sense ofstep
a 4: Delete all non-flagged pitches in C.
passage-as we did to understand the relations of the last
step 5: N is incremented by 1 (i.e., N becomes N+ 1).
three measures to the rest of the work-seems to be slightly
ad hoc. Such shifts of analytic procedure can easily get outstep 6: Flag all maxima in max-list. For any string of equal and
of hand. The analytic method becomes a patchwork of fixes adjacent maxima in max-list, either: (1) flag only one of them;
which tend only to undermine the purpose of analysis alto- (2) if one pitch in the string is the first or last pitch of C, flag
or
gether. In addition, both kinds of analysis seek to compre-only it; or (3) if both the first and last pitch of C are in the string,
hend a work by showing associations among its musical en-flag (only) both the first and last pitch of C.
tities and transformations. But association is a very general
step 7: Flag all minima in min-list. For any string of equal and
category of relation. Thus, we need a better conception adjacent
of minima in min-list, either: (1) flag only one of them;
how contour and pc analysis can fit together. or (2) if one pitch in the string is the first or last pitch of C, flag
To this end, taking a cue from tonal music, this study offers
only it; or (3) if both the first and last pitch of C are in the string,
a hierarchical model of contour relations. The core of the flag (only) both the first and last pitch of C.
model is the Contour Reduction Algorithm, described some-
step 8: Go to step 3.
what formally in Example 13. The algorithm prunes pitches
of a contour until no more can be deleted; the result is called step 9: End. N is the "depth" of the original contour C.
a prime contour. In order to understand the action of the The reduced contour is the prime of C; if N = 0, then the original
algorithm, we need the following concepts. Maxima are the C has not been reduced and is a prime itself.
pitches
pitchesatatlocal
local
high
high
points
points
in a in
contour
a contour
plus the
plus
contour's
the contour's
first first Example 14. Worked example of contour-reduction algorithm
and
and last
lastpitch.
pitch.Minima
Minima are are
the the
opposite,
opposite,
local low
local
points
low points Let C = <0 4 3 2 5 5 1> step 7. Flag minima.
together
togetherwith
withthe
the
first
first
andand
last last
pitches.
pitches.
The max-list
The max-list
of a of a graph:
contour is the set of maxima and the min-list is the set of . e
minima. 4 (Note that the max-list and min-list always intersect

in two pitches, the contour's first and last.) Pruning involves
the deletion of pitches from the contour according to the START:
following rule: if a pitch p is immediately preceded by a lower step 8. Go to step 3.
steps 1 and 2: Upper beams
or equal pitch and inmmediately succeeded by higher or equal show flagged max-list; lower step 3. Not all pitches are flagged.
step 4. Delete unflagged pitches.
pitch, or vice versa, p is pruned. The pruning rule is applied beams show flagged min-list.
to the max-list and the min-list of a contour; the process is
akin to the deletion of passing tones in reductive analysis.
Immediate repetitions in the max- or min-list are also deleted.
The algorithm is recursive, producing a series of intermedi-
ate, increasingly pruned contours until the prime results.
Each stage of reduction provides a contour on a distinct an- step 5. N = 2.
step 3. Not all pitches are flagged.
steps 6 and 7. All pitches are flagged.
alytic level. The number of stages or levels needed to produce step 4. Delete 3rd (unflagged) pitch.
step 8. Go to step 3.
a prime from a contour c is called the depth of c. Thus every
step 3. All pitches are flagged; go to step 9.
contour has a prime and depth number. Example 14 provides step 9. END.
a worked example of the algorithm. In the example, beams
are used to show flagged maxima and minima.
The algorithm is performed on each of the six phrases of
<0 4 3 2 5 5 1> has a depth of 2:
the "melody" of the Schoenberg piece. The result is given in step 5. N = 1.
its prime is <0 2 1>.
step 6. Flag maxima and delete
Example 15. Under the pitch sequences of the six phrases are repetition in max-list.
the levels produced by each pass through the body of the
algorithm followed by the resulting prime. The number of
levels for each phrase equals the depth of that phrase's con-
tour. The depth of four of the contours is 2, except for phrase
2 (depth 3) and the last (depth 1). Note that the greater
complexity of phrase 2, as indicated by its greater depth, is of
of all
allthe
thephrases.
phrases.
This
This
helps
helps
connect
connect
it, theit,
simplest
the simplest
phrase, p
compensated by its relatively simple rhythmic structure of to
to the
thesecond
second
phrase,
phrase,
the the
mostmost
complex,
complex,
since they
since
share
theythe
shar
even sixteenth notes. The last phrase's shallow depth is high- same overall shape-the prime <2 3 01>. In fact, each
lighted by its articulation; it has the longest and loudest notes phrase reduces either to prime <120>, member of cseg
class <02 1> or to the primes <230 1> and <1 0>. Prime
14In some cases, a contour has pitches not in either the max- or min-list; <23 0 1> includes, and <10> is included in, <02 1>, the
these are called mid pitches. retrograde relative of <1 2 0>. These <1 2 0> primes reflect
Example
Example
15. Contour-reduction analysis of15.
Schoenberg, Op.
Contour-reduction
19 No. 4
phrase 1 phrase 2 phrase 3 phrase 4 phrase 5 phrase 6
1Oy r^ ;j.? I11
' J 1 jDIr IJJJ

I 1 1
' '
L lir *
--I I
SIi*#]
0> 3 0 1>
Primes: < 1 2 0> <1 2 0> <1 0><2 3 0 1>

> 3 0 10
Sequence
of pcs in 5 9 1 4 10 4 59 10 6 8 5 7 10 11
primes. \ \ I //
\m All pcs in union =
complement of (0
phrase 1: / last chor

(3 pcs in common): /
member of 4-19
{5,8,9,1 1 member of 4 -12
in
in microcosm
microcosm thethe
gradually
gradually
descending
descending
shape ofshape
the entire
of the entire edges
edges or
oroutline
outlineofof
a percept.
a percept.
The The
depth
depth
number
number
gives agives
rougha rou
piece. measure
measureof
ofthe
thecomplexity
complexity
of aof
contour.
a contour.
Moreover,
Moreover,
the t
Next we note the sequence of pcs over the six primes. First, stream
streamofofhigh
highand
andlowlow
peaks
peaks
is incorporated
is incorporated
into the
intomost
the mos
the beginning four pcs give set class 4-19, which we observed background
backgroundlevel,
level,
which
whichhere
here
is the
is prime.
the prime.
As weAs
shall
wesee,
shall see
was the set class of the first five notes of the piece, the content the
the primes
primesofof
melodic
melodic
sequences
sequences
are limited
are limited
to only
to aonly
few a f
of phrase 4 minus a passing tone, and the left hand chord of species,
species,not
notby
byfiat
fiat
or or
conjecture,
conjecture,
but due
but to
due
thetostructure
the structure
of
m. 4. In any case, the first three pcs of the sequence of prime the
the algorithm.
algorithm.
pcs are in common with the first four pcs of the piece. As
As the
theanalysis
analysisintimates,
intimates,
the the
algorithm
algorithm
provides
provides
a mea-a mea
Second, the last five pcs of the prime sequence <8 5 7 10 sure
sure of
ofsalience
saliencefor
for
segmentation
segmentation
of pcofsets.
pc sets.
Example
Example
16 1
11> abstractly include the 4-12 [0,2,3,6] set class of the last shows
showshowhowthethelevels
levels
produced
produced by the
by algorithm
the algorithm
definedefine
partial par
chord of piece. The inclusion, under T4I, involves three com- orderings
orderingsofofpcs.15
pcs.15Here
Herethethe
second
second
phrase's
phrase's
three three
levels and
levels a
mon pcs, corresponding to the just noted 4-19 set-class con- surface
surface(depth
(depth 0) 0)
produces
produces a partially
a partially
ordered
ordered
set ofset
pitches,
of pitche
nections in the opening bars. and
and finally
finallya apartially
partiallyordered
orderedset of
setpcs.
of The
pcs.ordering
The ordering
is basedis ba
Third, note how pc 9, the most ubiquitous pc in the prime on
on the
theprominence
prominence of of
thethe
pcs pcs
articulated
articulated
by pitches
by pitches
in the in the
pc sequence, gradually falls in register to low A in last chord. contour.
contour.ThisThisordering
ordering suggests
suggests
thatthat
certain
certain
set classes
set classes
are
The next most frequent pc is 10, which, together with pc 9, favored
favoredby bythe
the
design
design
of of
thethe
contour.
contour.
The most
The most
salientsalient
pcs pc
echoes the top and bottom of phrase 1 and 4. The Bk also (depth
(depth3,3,the
thepcs
pcs
ofof
thethe
prime),
prime),
{1 4 {1
10},4 produce
10}, produce
3-10. This
3-10. Thi
is the final tone in phrase 2 and the lowest of phrases 4 and resonates
resonateswith
withthe
the
T3 T3
cycles
cycles
and and
octatonic
octatonic
flavorflavor
of theof music
the mu
6. Such salience is to be expected since the prime sequences in
in m.
m.66and
andelsewhere.
elsewhere.
Next
Next
in importance
in importance
is theisset
the
class
set4-12
class 4-
comprise the top, bottom, first, and last pcs of all the phrases. produced
producedby
bythe
the
pcspcs
associated
associated
withwith
depths
depths
2 and 23,and
the 3,
pc the pc
But perhaps the most remarkable feature of the prime set
set {12410}.
{12410}.4-12
4-12is is
thethe
same
same
set set
classclass
as the
assforzando
the sforzan
sequence is that its union is a member of the set-class 9-2, tetrachord
tetrachordatatthe
theendendof of
thethe
piece.
piece.
The last
The two
lastset
twoclasses,
set classes
the abstract complement of 3-2, the most prevalent set class 7-16
7-16 and
and10-2
10-2are,
are,of of
course,
course,
the the
hardest
hardest
to hear
to out
hearofout
the of th
in the piece. Moreover, the pcs not in the sequence {C, D, entire
entirepc
pccontent
contentof of
thethe
phrase.
phrase.
But But
perhaps
perhaps
10-2 is10-2
moreis mo
Eb} are the very pcs of the bass notes of the three left-hand salient
salientthan
than7-16
7-16
since
since
it is
itthe
is the
entire
entire
pc content
pc content
of theof
phrase;
the phra
attacks in m. 4.
in
in other
otherwords,
words,nono
pc pc
of of
thethe
phrase
phrase
has to
has
be to
dropped
be dropped
to pickto pi
With the results of the analysis in mind, we may now up
up the
theset
setclass.
class. But
But
even
even
if 7-16
if 7-16
and and
10-2 10-2
do not
dofigure
not figur
consider the main analytic features of the algorithm. Like
greatly
greatlyor
oratatallall
into
into
ourour
analysis,
analysis,
it is it
of is
noof
moment,
no moment,
for thefor t
Schenkerian reductive techniques, the algorithm sets up hi-most
most salient
salientpcs
pcsdodo
relate
relate
to other
to other
pc sets
pc and
setsset
andclasses
set classes
in in
erarchical levels of pitch salience. High and low peaks are
the piece.
selected; "passing notes" and "inner voices" are pruned.
That is, the algorithm provides a criterion for associating
nonadjacent notes by picking out those that are presumably
'5Of course, in general, a given pc may occur at more than one depth.
most obvious to the ear. Why presumably? Because the al-
For instance, given the partially-ordered set <{a b c} {d} {a e}> with pc a
gorithm is based on the "gestalt-psychology" principle occurring
of at levels 3 and 1, we can rewrite the partial ordering as {a<{b c}
boundary salience, that is, the perceptual prominence of the
{d} {e}>}.
Example 16. Pitches, pitch classes, and set classes ordered according to "salience"
<7 10 9 0 2 1 8 6 2 4 5>
+4 w "'4" ~" depth 0
y- -' t iIt--f1-
depth 1
depth 2
"' e, f[ t"11=
depth 3 Prime =<2 3 0 1>
pitches partially ordered by depth (salience):
e y" ^ tl I ^ I _- . Iff
depth: 3 2 1 0
pitch classes partially ordered by depth (sa
<[1 4 101, 2, [5 6 7], [0 3 6 8]>
I 3-10
14-12
r 7-16
I 10-2
set classes ordered by depth (salience)
Example 17. Contour-reduction algorithm applied to entire "melody" of Op. 19 No. 4
depth 1:
j. '. - ' J;
_ V r
depth 2:
*e- ' - ' -----V-- ---

depth 3:
_--_.-r=_r~2
depth 4: prime: <2 3 0 1>; depth 4
c f ] ..
V_ -_ .
But perhaps the algorithm's greatest strength is its gen- The results given in Example 17 are not very reve
erality; it can work on "contours" with any number of
Indeed, the example asserts that the anacrustic F5, the
repeated and/or simultaneous pitches-on any passage of note of the piece, is "deeper" than, say, the last no
first
phrase
pitches. On the other hand, it is fragile; its results depend on 2, the A#. Such is the weakness of attempti
the segregation of pitches into phrases that are selectedreduce
for a long string of pitches derived from concate
input into the algorithm. In the Schoenberg piece, the phrase
phrases. Nevertheless, the depth of 4 is surprisingly shal
structure is clear enough. But what if there were no clear or
pervasive criteria for phrase grouping? We can illustrate the
problem by applying the algorithm to the entire string of '6That is, one might expect a series of 26 pitches to produce a co
pitches in Opus 19 No. 4. with greater depth. On the other hand, the generally descending ch
The
The prime
primeofof
<2 <2
3 031>
0 is
1>the
is the
samesame
as phrase
as phrase
2 and 6, and 6, but called the linear prime classes. Example 19a gives the table
2 but
this
this isisnot
notreally
really
so so
noteworthy
noteworthy
sincesince
there there
are only
aretwo
only two linear of 25 basic prime classes. The table is arranged according to
linear
prime
primeclasses
classes
(with
(with
four
four
timepoints)
timepoints)
of cardinality four.17 four.17 the number of distinct pitches and timepoints of each class's
of cardinality
So
So although
althoughwewe cancan
often
often
decidedecide
on phrase
on phrase
structure
structure
on on members. The table of the 28 secondary prime classes is given
an
an ad
adhoc
hocbasis,
basis,
in in
certain
certain
casescases
it would
it would
be useful
be useful
to have to have as Example 19b. While the basic classes each comprise up to
aa parsing
parsingalgorithm
algorithm to divide
to divide
a piece
a piece
into successive
into successive
and hi- and hi- four pitches in four timepoints, the secondary ones use five
erarchically
erarchicallyembedded
embedded parts.
parts.
Fortunately,
Fortunately,
James James
TenneyTenney
and and or six pitches. The generative connection from prime class to
Larry
LarryPolansky
Polansky have
have
published
published
an algorithm
an algorithm helps dohelps do each cseg class helps provide a guide through the maze of cseg
which which
the
the job.18
job.18But
But
before
beforewe we
discuss
discuss
theirtheir
algorithm,
algorithm, we should classes whose multiplicity increases factorially. Thus the set
we should
take
take up
upone
onemore
moreaspect
aspect
of the
of contour
the contour
reduction
reduction algorithm, of equivalence classes in contour theory is replaced by a tree
algorithm,
the
the status
statusofof
primes.
primes. structure; in fact, by 53 tree structures.
As
As mentioned
mentioned earlier,
earlier,
the the
primes
primes
play aplay
role aanalogous
role analogous
to to I now return to the question of detecting appropriate
that
that of
ofthe
theSchenkerian
Schenkerian background.
background.
Due toDue
the to the algorithm, phrase boundaries and how it is addressed in the Tenney/
algorithm,
primes
primescannot
cannot havehave
immediately
immediately repeated
repeated (unless (unless Polansky Algorithm.19 The algorithm invokes the temporal
pitchespitches
they
theyare
arefirst
first andand
last),
last),
but,but,
as shown
as shown
in Example 18, they18, they gestalt theory of James Tenney.20 His theory models certain
in Example
may
may have
havesimultaneous
simultaneous pitches.
pitches.
TheseThese
pitchespitches in- be in- formal aspects of twentieth-century music, much of which
can be can
scribed
scribedinina arectangle
rectangle (or (or
collapsed
collapsed
rectangle
rectangle
for thefor the "trivial" operates outside the constraints of (presently known) music
"trivial"
primes
primesofoftwo
two or or
oneone
pitch).
pitch).
SuchSuch
primeprime
rectangles
rectangles are found grammars. The algorithm partitions a stream of music into
are found
in
in Example
Example18.18. OfOf course,
course,
we may
we may
immediately
immediately derive the successive temporal gestalts, which for present purposes can
derive the
prime
primeof ofany
anycontour
contourby inscribing
by inscribing
it in effect
it in effect in a rectangle. be considered phrases. In some ways the Tenney/Polansky
in a rectangle.
Lest
Lest this
thissound
soundtootoo
simplistic,
simplistic,
we should
we should
remember
remember that con- algorithm is like our contour-reduction algorithm. Both com-
that con-
tours
toursofofa agiven
given
cardinality
cardinality
that that
reducereduce
to sametoprime
same can
prime can pare successive values of some parameter stream and both set
differ
differasastotodepth;
depth;andand
the the
converse
converse
is true-contours
is true-contours
of dif- of dif- up hierarchical levels. In addition, their algorithm is also
ferent
ferentcardinalities
cardinalities having
having
the same
the same
depthdepth
can often
can reduce
often reduce based on gestalt principles-in this case, of proximity and
to
to the
thesame
sameprime.
prime. grouping.21
Primes
Primescan canbebe
sorted
sortedintointo
prime
prime
classes.
classes.
Each class
Eachisclass
a csegis a cseg
class
classand
andthus
thus includes
includes
primes
primes
related
related
by R, byI, and
R, RI.
I, and
ThereRI. There
19For another framework for determining segmentations in general and
are
are 2525basic
basicprime
primeclasses
classes
and and
28 secondary
28 secondary
prime prime
classes-53
classes-53
within Opus 19 No. 4 specifically see David Lidov, On the Musical Phrase
classes
classesininall,
all,
only
onlyfive
five
of which
of which
do notdohave
not repetitions
have repetitions
or or (Montreal: University of Montreal Press, 1975), 66-77.
simultaneities. The five are <0>, <01>, <021>, <1032>, 2'See James Tenney, META + HODOS and META Meta + Hodos, 2d
and <1302>. These together with <010> and <1021> are ed. (Hanover, NH: Frog Peak Music, 1988).
2-Admittedly, the following discussion is both cursory and simplified and
may give the impression that the Tenney/Polansky algorithm is a bit rigid or
of the music and the "recapitulation" of the first phrase an octave lower mechanical. Nevertheless, in Tenney and Polansky "Temporal Gestalt Per-
suggest a somewhat linear and therefore shallow depth. ception," the algorithm is used to determine gestalt groupings in a number
of nontonal pieces. Tenney and Polansky then compare the results with pre-
17The set class associated with the prime's notes, 4-16 [0,1,5,7], seems
less connected to the other pc structures in the piece. viously published analyses. The algorithmic results correspond rather well to
18See footnote 7 for citation. the segmentations given by the authors of the analyses.
Example 18. Primes enclosed in rectangles
<0 2 1> <1 0 3 2 < 131 402>
In
In essence,
essence,thethe
algorithm
algorithm
looks looks
at a string
at a of
string
intervals are shown by vertical lines. The results are quite reasonable.
of intervals
derived from the successive values in some musical dimension For instance, the four pitches <E, Ft, G, F> in phrase 2 are
in a piece of music. The string might be a series of pitch segmented out of the rest of the measure since they fall in
intervals, time intervals (delays), dynamic changes, and so a lower register from the others. Phrases 4 and 5 seem seg-
forth. More than one string can be selected for analysis. Then mented correctly; the first is divided into two segments, the
the algorithm combines the values of each dimension's suc- second into one. And in general, the boundaries of these
cessive intervals according to a user-specified average which first-level segments never contradict our more intuitively de-
assigns a relative "weight" to each of the dimensions. rived phrase structure. The second pass works on the aver-
Example 20 illustrates the principle of the Tenney/ ages of the values in each level-1 segment. These averages
Polansky algorithm: For four successive dimension values are simply the center pitch of the bandwidth (measured in
labeled A through D forming three successive unordered semitones) of each level-1 segment. The intervals between
intervals labeled X, Y, and Z, if the middle interval is greater the series of bandwidths forming level 2 are the input to the
than the other two intervals, the string of values is segmented second pass of the algorithm. The resulting second-level seg-
in half; the value C starts a new segment or phrase. mentation divides the piece in half in the middle of the third
In its simplest form, using only one musical dimension, the phrase, which contradicts our six-phrase structure.
algorithm works by going through the dimension's list of un- That the second-pass parsing is at variance with our phrase
directed intervals in threes looking for maximum values and structure is not an embarrassment, for we are taking pitch
segmenting accordingly. This results in a series of successive intervals as the only criterion for segmentation. Let us ex-
segments (or phrases). We can then average the values in amine Example 21b with the algorithm's taking only time
each of the output segments to get a series of new higher- spans between notes as input. Here the unit of time is a
order values. We input these into the algorithm to produce thirty-second note. Once again the first level basically con-
a second-order segmentation and so forth, until the music is forms to our ideas of the phrase structure, with two excep-
parsed into a single segment. tions. Likewise, the second pass partitions the stream of dura-
To illustrate the Tenney/Polansky Algorithm, we perform tions so that it has an exception inherited from level 1; the
it on the Schoenberg piece. Example 21a shows the results last phrase is divided in half, with its first part serving as a
using one dimension -pitch alone. The first pass segments the conclusion to the second-level segment that starts at phrase 4.
pitches into segments of three to six pitches; that is, the seg- Finally, Example 21c shows the algorithm's output using
mentation is determined by the sequence of the sizes of suc- both duration and pitch. The initial values of the previous
cessive unordered pitch intervals. The segmental boundaries examples are simply added together. This time the results get
Example 19a. The 25 basic prime classes
1 distinct
distinct 22 distinct
distinct 3 distinct 4 distinct
pitch: pitches: pitches: pitches:
time-
C: <101o> I
point
B: <0 0> D: <0 1> , H: <I01t 2> ? Q: <101 123\> 3

2
time-
E: <101 0> I: <1021 1> R>o R: <102[ 113[>i
points
F: <01t 101t> i J: <>011 02> < S: <1031 1121>
K: <101/ 1129> r
G: <0 10> L: <02 1> T: <101t32>
3 M: <101 20> U: <1021 3 1>

time-
points N: <1011 2 1> V: <03 121>
Ap'
0: <1 {02\ 1> W: <1 1031 2> ,V
I.
I
4 P: <102 1> b X: <1032> a,

time-
points Y: <1302> >p
A, B, D, G, L, P, X, and Y are the "linear prime classes."
very close
close to
to the
the segmentation
segmentation we wetook
tookfor
forgranted
grantedininour
our
are shown with arrows; only one of these is problem
earlier contour
contour analysis,
analysis, even
even if
if there
thereare
aresome
somedeviant Obviously the algorithm's success has a lot to do wit
deviantseg-
seg-
mentations at the second level. Two of these are marked with specificity and detail of the input. With other dimensions
the word "omit" since the values leading to the segmentation as dynamics added in, the segmentations might well cor
are so close as to be equivalent, in which case there would spond to our six-phrase scheme.
be no segmentation.22 The more reasonable segmentations In summary, from the preceding examples we might
justified in assuming that the Tenney/Polansky algor
22For example, the sequence of intervals at the beginning of level 2 is < 17
approximates our intuitions about phrase structure-
18 13>. Because 18 is greater than 17 or 13, there is a boundary after the
"10" in the "level-1 sums." However, the 17 and 18 are relatively very close,
cifically, intuitions modeled by gestalt principles. Co
so we could consider them to be identical; then the boundary after the 10 quently, the algorithm can safely be used as a heuris
would be omitted. The same reasoning applies to the sequence <22 24.2 suggest legitimate phrase boundaries, especially in litera
11.6> later on in level 2.
in which phrase boundaries are more difficult to assess. T
Example 19b. The secondary prime classes
33 distinct
distinct pitches
pitches 44 distinct
distinct pitches
pitches 55distinct
distinct 6 distinct
distinct pitches
pitches pitches pitches
a:<{01} 2 {01}> b:<{01} 3 {12}> j:<{01}
j:<{01}4 {23}> w:<{12}
4 {23}> {05} {34}>
c:<{02} 3 {12}> k:<{02} 4 {13}> x:<{13} {05} {24}>
d:<{12} {03} 2> 1:<{03} 4 {12}> y:<{14} {05} {23}>
3 timepoints e:<{12} {03} {12}> m:<{12} {04} 3>
f:<{13} 0 {23}> n:<{12} {04} {23}>
o:<{13} {04} 2>
p:<{13} {04} {23}>
g:<{12}
g:<{12} q:<{12} 0 4 3>
0 3 2> 0 3 2> z:<{12} 0 5 {13}>
h:<{12} 3 0 2> r:<{12} 4 0 3> aa:<{13} 0 5 {24}>
4 timepoints i:<{12} 0 3 {12}> s:<{12} 0 4 {23}> bb:<{14} 0 5 {23}>
t:<{13} 0 4 2>
u:<{13} 0 4 {23}>
v:<{13} 4 0 {23}>
Example 20. Principle of Tenney/Polansky algorithm

perhaps with a bit of fine tuning, we can run the results
through the contour-reduction algorithm with assurance.23
While the recursive aspect of the Tenney/Polansky and the
successive dimension values: A B C D
I II I I
contour-reduction algorithms might make them seem similar, interval interval interval
there are some important differences. In the Tenney/ unordered intervals: X Y Z
Polansky algorithm we look only for relative maxima, not

minima, among intervals between dimension values, If
notY>X and Y >Z, then C
among the entities themselves. Furthermore, the Tenney/
Polansky algorithm can be misleading in the presence of mu-
sical syntax. Like the contour-reduction algorithm, the
Examples:
Examples:
Tenney/Polansky algorithm doesn't "know" about harmony

,3 ,3 _ -o , 6 ,_
_ -o , DJ
6DJn,_
or meter. It can segment a passage inappropriately as shown
pitch: 6 9 2 3 timepoints: 0 1 3 4
in Example 22. We would expect that the passage would unordered be pitch 3 7 1 durations: 1 2 1
intervals:
broken at the measure boundary, following its harmonic
structure. This is not necessarily a defect. For, in the ex-
23The Tenney/Polansky algorithm can be fine-tuned also-by experiment-

ing with various weightings for dimension values. This corresponds to th
interpretations of performers, who, by the use of various kinds of articulation
and timings. are able to point out different segmentations of a given passage
from one performance to another.
Example 21a. Tenney/Polansky algorithm applied to pitch in Op. 19 No. 4
phrase 1 phrase 2 phrase 3 phrase 4 phrase 5 phrase 6
nA i F1i No w" 3
=,
"4
"4
1-\[r[\[
Irb:t:
l__ [- b`rP
arb:t:
1 aa INJ
1 1-;j,X
AdJ
b`rP
I1 I I ,I11F
11-k4 aIv INJ
Ih Ji - ;III,1AdJ
nm#f ,I E_
I [JiI1API I II I,I11F
* Il ,1~ Ih
I 1-iJi
. I- - I I,1
1-1 eV I
Ti L I
" I I I = _ i i r l TI nI nI n - I - I I 1 1 -
p 6 ' 1 I T'" T TT " T -- 'I-I
ff_ 32 2:8 vPt. t1
level 1: 4 4 7 3 1 3 4 3 11 2 1 2 9 2 6 2 2 4 1 1 3 1 11 2 1 2 10 13 447 32 1 8 3 3 2 2 8 9 1 1 9 2
center
ofband-
widths:
level 2: 8 1 4.5 4.5 2.5 2 3 11.5 10 7.5 1.5 5.5 8
ample,
ample,the chords as
thesegmented
chords
do affect our as two
two
perception of(or
(or more)
segmented more)sets
setsofofvalues
values
do each
each
derived
derived
affect from
from
a different
aour
differ
the
thepassage,passage,
so that the musicalso
gesture
that
is in conflict
the musical
with the dimension.25
musical gesture is in co
musical
musicalsyntax. This syntax.
sheds light on the interaction
This of sheds
musical light
As an example, on the
let us associate pitch and interac
time once again.
structure
structure and design. Moreand
traditional
design.
examples of suchMore
con-
In Example 24 traditional examp
we associate the set of pitches <0 1 2 3> with
flicts
flictsoften involve
often
syncopation.involve
Example 23 illustrates the
the ordered set of timepoints
syncopation. <0 1 2 3>. As shown,
Example 23pitch
conflict
conflict between meterbetween
and pitch patterning
meter is and
mapped to pitch
in a Bach minuet. timepoint 0, pitch 1 to timepoint 2, pitch 2in
patterning to
Dynamic
Dynamic accents producedaccents
by doubling certain
produced
notes on timepoint
an- by
1, doubling
and pitch 3 to timepoint 3. Thiscertain
association is
other
other manual of manual
the harpsichord, asofthe notation
thesuggests,
harpsichord,
a one-to-one, onto map and the as the
result is the samenotat
as the pitch
heighten
heighten the conflict between
the theconflict series <0 2 1 3>. The the
6 patterns and the minuet's
between example should also make it clear that a
6 patterns
normative 3 meter. a contour graph is really a two-dimensional Cartesian graph
Up to now, we have only considered contours without of this association.
Example 25 shows us that <0 1 423> can associate any

replications or simultaneities. What about all the possibili-
ties? In addition, our attention has focused on the most ob-
two linear domains. The domains need not be temporal. Her
vious aspects of contour-melodic shape. We can remedy a series of dynamics stands in for the timepoint set above. I
these limitations and assert a truly general theory of contour
this connection, an interesting linear domain has been studie
(or morphology, to use Larry Polansky's term)24 if we define
a contour in the most general way, as the association of two
ordered sets. Musical contour is therefore an association of 25This definition is found in Morris, Composition, 283: "DEF 7.1.2 A
contour is a set of points in one sequential dimension ordered by any oth
24See Polansky, "Morphological Metrics. sequential dimension."
Example 21b. Tenney/Polansky algorithm applied to timepoints in Op. 19 No. 4
phrase 1 phrase 3
level : 27 1 7 1 8 6 2 2 2 2 2 22 2 2 2 28+ 8 12 426.62.6 .6 2 12 13 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 4 12 4 12
level 2: 9 8 9 56 20 18 27 8 22 16
level 3: 82 65 30 16
Example 21c
pitch
pitchintervals: intervals:
4 4 7 (etc.
4 from Ex. 21a) 4 7 (etc. from
time intervals: 2 7 1 (etc.fromEx.21b)
level 1 sums: 6 118 1012 11 10 5 313 4 34 1148 4 4 32+ 9 13 73.613.6 7 4 22 26 58 4 32 10 4 4339 10 5 13 13 13
level 2: 17 18 13 31 22 52+ 22 24.2 11.6 52 18 19 33 44
omit? 'i
4Z omit? ?
Example
Example22.
22.Tenney/Polansky
Tenney/Polanskyalgorithm
algorithm
in the
in presence
the presence
of tonal
of tonal Example 24. Contours as associations between two sets
syntax
contour: < 02 1 3> graph: 3
A I I JI I
1. I i , - iI
2
My,;F , _s I In a d
1
pitch: 0
timepoints: 0 3 4 5 6
0 1 2 3
durations: 1 1
timepoints:
timepoints:
bandwidth (semitones): 12 12 27 19 19 19
associations: pitch set timepoint set

intervals: 0 15 8 0 0
0 < > 0
Result: Segment after second chord!?
2 2
3< >3
Example 23. Contour versus
(one-to-one, on
Tempo di Minuetto I
repetition
repetition rules
rulesofofthe
thealgorithm
algorithmmaymayhave
have
to to
be be
altered
altered
to to
J.. Bc- Patt in
achieve
achieve maximum
maximumefficiency.
efficiency.
J.S. Bach Partita in G
It should
should be
be clear
clearbybynow
nowthat
thatcontours
contourswithout
without repetitions
repetitions
and
and simultaneities
simultaneitiesare
areone-to-one,
one-to-one,onto
onto
mappings.
mappings.In In
con-
con-
trast,
trast, contours
contours with
withsimultaneities
simultaneitiesand/or
and/or
repetitions
repetitionsareare
either
either onto
onto (but
(butnot
notone-to-one)
one-to-one)mappings
mappingsoror
not
not
mappings
mappings
by
by Elizabeth
ElizabethMarvin.26
Marvin.26TheThe
+, -,
+,and
-, and
Os of
Osa of
contour
a contour
can can
at all.
model the relative size of the intervals between dimension
Onto contours are given in Example 26. The case on the
values. She has dubbed these kinds of contours D-segs and
used them to describe the relative sizes of durations between
left, shows the timepoint set <0,1,2> mapped to the pitchset
<0,1>; the contour's COM-matrix is shown as well. The
timepoints or the relative sizes of the series of unordered
result is the contour <11 0> including a (pitch) repetition.
pitch intervals between members of a chord from low to high.
The other contour, on the right of the example, involves a
Of course, the contour-reduction algorithm can be performed
simultaneity. Here the pitchset <0,1,2> maps to the time-
on this or any other kind of contour to find the contour's
point set <0,1>. Notice that the contour's COM-matrix has
hierarchy of salient elements. In some cases, however, the
to be written with multiple entries in its positions. Thus onto
26Marvin, "The Perception of Rhythm" and "A Generalization of Con- contours tend to complicate, if not compromise, the COM-
tour Theory." matrix. The reader might have also realized that the two onto
Example 25. Contour associating pitch and dynamics Example 26. Onto contours
with repetition: with simultaneity:

A4
contour: 0 1 4 2 3 graph: 3 <110> <2o01\>
2
1 I
mf pitch: 0 dim. 1 dim. 2 dim. 1 dim. 2
n
0 1 2 3 4 pitch timepoints pitch timepoints
-9:
p mp mf f ff
ff
dynamics:
realization 2
of contour:
f
1: u COM-matrix: COM-matrix:
mp
o - 0
0 0 -
p + +
+ + 0 + -
maps
maps
are actually the same and that
are a swap of the actually
timepoint the sa
andand
pitch sets distinguishes
pitch
the two contours. This kind
sets
of distingui
exchange
exchange
flips the graph of one contour into the graph
flips possible
possiblemelodies."
of the melodies."AnAn
the instance
instance
of such
ofgraph
such
a COM-matrix
a COM-matrix
is
other around an invisible southwest-northeast axis.27 None- given
givenon
onthe
theupper
upper
left
left
of Example
of Example
27. The
27. matrix's
The matrix's
three thr
theless, the COM-matrices of the two contours show no suchentries
entriesininCOM(1,2),
COM(1,2), COM(1,3),
COM(1,3), and and
COM(2,3)
COM(2,3)
provide provid
reciprocity, which is indicated, among other things, by the three
threevalues
valuesthat,
that,
when
whentaken
taken
in pairs,
in pairs,
implyimply
a thirda value
thirdviavalue
different number of positions of each.28 transitivity.
transitivity.Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, thisthis
implied
implied
value value
contradicts
contradicts
the t
Onto contours with repetitions help explain the "impos- third
thirdvalue
valuegiven
givenbybythethe
matrix.
matrix.
The example
The example
illustrates
illustrates
the th
sible melodies" of Richard Bassein and Larry Polansky.29three
threecases
casesofof
transitivity
transitivityviolation.
violation.
(The (The
a, b, and
a, b,c are
andthec are th
They have shown that, although every linear contour has a contour
contourpitches
pitchesin in
thethe
contour
contourasserted
asserted
by thebymatrix.)
the matrix.)
The Th
COM-matrix, not every COM-matrix models a linear con- COM-matrix's
COM-matrix's impossibilities
impossibilitiesare resolved
are resolved
by their
by inclusion
their inclusio
tour. Some COM-matrices "generate" what they call "im-into
into the
theCOM-matrix
COM-matrixof of
a larger
a larger
ontoonto
contour.
contour.
The double
The doub
entries of the COM-matrix of contour <2 1 {0 3}> shown in
27Such 45-degree flips could be added into the list of transformations that
the lower left of the example, can be extracted in four dif-
generate cseg classes.
ferent ways to get three-by-three contour matrices. If we take
28This follows from the fact that onto maps have no inverses.
29See Larry Polansky and Richard Bassein, "Possible and Impossible Mel-the minus out of COM(1,3), the + out of COM(2,3), the +
ody: Some Formal Aspects of Contour," Journal of Music Theory 36 (1992): out of COM(3,1), the - out of COM(3,2), and consider
259-84.
COM(3,3) to have a 0 rather than a + and -, we produce
Example 27. "Impossible melodies" and onto mappings that

thatonto
ontomappings
mappingsare enumerated
are enumerated
by the by
same
the
Sterling
same St
This
This
COM-matrix can satisfy
COM-matrix
no contour, thus it
numbers,
numbers,
can
as as
shown
shown
in the
in table
satisfy
the table
of general
of
no
general
contour contour
types in ty
contou
- +
"generates"
"generates"
an "impossible contour." an Example
Example 28.
28.
"impossible contour."
+ 0 -
COM(1,2)==-implies b < a In
In any
anycase,
case,
where
wherecontours
contours
involve
involve
both repetitions
both repetition
and
+ 0 COM(1,3)= +implies a < c simultaneities,
simultaneities, thethe
association
association
between
between
the twothe
setstwo
is not
sets
a is
COM(2,3)= -implies c < b
mapping
mapping because
because
at least
at least
one value
one value
of eachof
ofeach
the two
of sets
the t
1.
1. cc << bband
andb b< <a imply
a imply
viavia
transitivity
transitivity
thatthat
c < a.cbut
< a.COM(1,3)
but COM(1,3) c > a; orc > a; or is associated with more than one value of the other. The
asserts asserts
2.
2. bb << aaand
anda a< <c c
imply
imply
viavia
transitivity
transitivity
thatthat
b < c.bbut
< c.COM(2,3)
but COM(2,3)
asserts asserts
c < b: orc < b: or COM-matrix is a poor model of such associations.
3.
3. aa << ccand
andc c< <b b
imply
imply
viavia
transitivity
transitivity
thatthat
a < b,a but
< b,COM(1,2)
but COM(1,2)
asserts asserts
b < a. b < a. Considering contours as associations allows us to presen
Onto contour includes four a complete taxonomy of all possible contours, and all
contours: the above; and the
three to the right. classes in general. Example 28 displays the system of Gen
Contour Types. It should be self-explanatory after a few m
O - + 0 - + 0 - e - +
ments of scrutiny.31
- ( ~ - 0
+ 0 + + 0 + 0 + The table of general contour types helps us understand
entire world of possibilities for using contour relations
+r + + {Q 3> + (o + music. Yet, embracing all possible contours leads to
problems. In Example 29, the contour-reduction algorith
contour <2 1 {0 3}> contour <2 1 0> contour <1 0 2> impossible contour
applied to the contour P and its retrograde. Note how
reduced contours, Q and S, are no longer related by R, b
are members of different cseg classes! The reason for th
anomaly involves the way in which we delete repeated n
In the example the rule is: delete the first of two or mo
the
the impossible
impossiblecontour
contour COM-matrix
COM-matrix given
given
on the
on the
top top of therepeated pitches. This rule, unlike the vaguer directions
of the
example.
example. The
Thethree
threeother
otherpossible
possibleextractions
extractions
are are
given
given
by bydeleting repetitions in the contour reduction algorithm in
the
the COM-matrices
COM-matricestotothe the
right
rightof of
thethe
onto
onto
COM-matrix. HereHereample 13, is time-dependent, so transformations under R
COM-matrix.
the extracted values are the uncircled values. Note that two not always congruent under its application. The example
of these COM-matrices actually generate real contours. We many implications for further research in contour theory
see that impossible contours can be understood as incomplete might be motivated to redefine the definition of cseg cla
onto contours. Bassein and Polansky indicate that their im- allow only I-related contours in each class. The numbe
possible melodies are enumerated by "Sterling numbers of
the second kind."30 This resonates with the well-known fact ("simultaneous, no repetitions") of Example 28. To find the number o
possible melodies of length n, we take the possible ones from the total nu
of COM-matrices, which is 3s(n) where s(n) is equal to the sum of the int
30Polansky and Bassein, in "Possible and Impossible Melody," show that 1 to n - 1.
the "number of possible three-valued contours" (that is, contours which are 3'Derivations and proofs of the enumeration equations are given i
described by three values [ +, -, 0]) of length n is given by a formula involving ter 3 of Ralph P. Grimaldi, Discrete and Combinatorial Mathema
the Sterling numbers of the second kind. This finding corresponds to line two Applied Introduction (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1985).
Example 28. General contour types Note:

Note: SS (a,
(a, b)
b)is
isthe
the"Sterling
"Sterling number
number of of
thethe
second
secondkind"
kind"
assoc
a
the
the integers
integersaaand andbb(b(bisis
less
less
oror
equal
equal
to to
a). a).
It is
It calculated
is calculated
as fa
b
1 I (-1)' b! (b-k)a
in the following table
b k=( (b-k)!k!
P = set of pitches; p = #P.
N = set of order numbers; n = #N.
Limitations Relation type Requirements

Requirements #of cases Example Graph: Relation
no repetitions, one-to-one, onto p=n p! <1 02> 2 0 O
no simultaneities map from P to N 1 1 X 1

and vice versa 0
012 P N
simultaneities,
simultaneities, onto
onto map
mapfromfromPP p>n n!S(p,n) <\021 1> 2 0 '-0
to
to N
N (not
(not one-to-
one-to- 1 O *O
no
no repetitions
repetitions
one)
one) 0
P N
0 1
repetitions,
repetitions, onto
onto map
mapfrom
fromNN p<n p!S(n,p) <1 10> 0* O
no simultanieties to
to P
P (not
(not one-to-
one-to- 1 1 1
one)
one)
012
0 1 P N
simultanieties and non-mapping none <jo01 1> 0 0

repetitions 1 L 1* *1
O
0 1 P N
omitted timepoints, one-to-one pen n! <1 -2> 0 --- 0

i. e., rests (not onto) (n -p)! 1P 1
0 12 P N
omitted pitches, one-to-one p>n p! <1 2> 0 0

i. e., gaps (not onto) (p-n)! I/ 1 1
0
0 1 P N
no limitations at all all relations none 2Pn any of the above any of the above any of the above
Example
Example
29. Reduction anomalies with repetitions 29. Redu
ABSTRACT
The paper begins with a brief review of previous wor

P: RP: contour by Richard Bassein, Robert Cogan, Pozzi E
Friedmann, Paul Laprade, Elizabeth Marvin, Robert M
. . . a
Polansky, and James Tenney. To this end, Schoenberg
Op. 19 No. 4 is analyzed. Its pc-set segmentations are as
relations among sets of equivalent contours.
The main part of the paper introduces the contour
algorithm, based on principles of perceptual organizat
<1 \02t 21> <1 2 o02 1>
stalt psychology. The algorithm allows one to associat
Q = reduction of P S = reduction of RP
contour pitches according to their degree of salience.
can be reduced to one of a set of irreducible prime c
defines its characteristic depth. The algorithm is appl
a a
phrases of the Schoenberg piece and the result resona
<1 > the previous contour/pc-set analysis. The hierarchic n
algorithm also helps organize the many classes of equ
<1 o02t 1> tours. Morris's definition of a contour as the association
sets leads to the construction of a taxonomy includin
(Q is not the retrograde of R)
contours. Contours that include replication and simu
defined by various categories in mathematical relatio
The paper includes a discussion of the role of salien
structure. The contour reduction algorithm is compared
reductive methodologies of tonal music and the perc
theories of Tenney and Polansky.
cseg classes and primes would increase almost two-fold,
which would certainly dull Occam's razor. Another remedy
would be to keep the definition of cseg class but to admit
certain repetitions into contours, so that there would be no
need to reduce contours by deleting repetitions. This would
turn the razor into a stone, since any contour could generate
an infinity of progeny by merely concatenating two or more
copies of itself to produce new and distinct, if redundant,
offspring. On the other hand, since the problem of R-related
contours occurs only with simultaneous pitches, we might
learn to live with linear contours and their seven linear prime
classes alone; such a limitation, however, would restrict the
scope and application of contour theory to monophony and
its generalizations.

Morris-Musical Contour

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Morris-Musical Contour

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Society for Music Theory

New Directions in the Theory and Analysis of Musical Contour

Example 1. Contours: notation and concepts Example 3. COM-matrix of < 0 3 1 2 >

contour of X :< 0 2 3 1 > graph of X - 0 - -

INT1 or CAS (contour adjacency series) of X : + + - >

Example 2. Contour < 1 3 0 2 > interpreted

graphs: P= <0 1 3 2> I = < 3 2 0 1> RI=< 0 2 3> R=<2 3 1 0>

Rctli raude Exchange and

Exchange = exchange matrix ent

Flip = flip matrix entries around

Example 7. RI-invariant contour Example 9. Enumeration of cseg classes

Example 8. The six csegs of cardinality 3;brief

Db C A mm. 1-2 mm. 2-3 m. 7 m.2 mm. 7-8

(4) (5) (6) [0,1,3,4]

poco rit. -leicht -

poco ri~t J ---.l __3

phrase 4 phrase 5 phrase 6

mm. 1-2 mm. 2-3 m. 3 m. 6

'fmartellato i . ff 'f fff

registrally adjacent pcs

minima. 4 (Note that the max-list and min-list always intersect

phrase 1 phrase 2 phrase 3 phrase 4 phrase 5 phrase 6

1Oy r^ ;j.? I11

' J 1 jDIr IJJJ

Primes: < 1 2 0> <1 2 0> <1 0><2 3 0 1>

phrase 1: / last chor

+4 w "'4" ~" depth 0

depth 3 Prime =<2 3 0 1>

pitches partially ordered by depth (salience):

pitch classes partially ordered by depth (sa

<[1 4 101, 2, [5 6 7], [0 3 6 8]>

set classes ordered by depth (salience)

Example 17. Contour-reduction algorithm applied to entire "melody" of Op. 19 No. 4

*e- ' - ' -----V-- ---

Example 18. Primes enclosed in rectangles

<0 2 1> <1 0 3 2 < 131 402>

Example 19a. The 25 basic prime classes

B: <0 0> D: <0 1> , H: <I01t 2> ? Q: <101 123\> 3

G: <0 10> L: <02 1> T: <101t32>

3 M: <101 20> U: <1021 3 1>

4 P: <102 1> b X: <1032> a,

A, B, D, G, L, P, X, and Y are the "linear prime classes."

Example 19b. The secondary prime classes

Example 20. Principle of Tenney/Polansky algorithm

there are some important differences. In the Tenney/ unordered intervals: X Y Z

Polansky algorithm we look only for relative maxima, not

Tenney/Polansky algorithm doesn't "know" about harmony

23The Tenney/Polansky algorithm can be fine-tuned also-by experiment-

Example 21a. Tenney/Polansky algorithm applied to pitch in Op. 19 No. 4

phrase 1 phrase 2 phrase 3 phrase 4 phrase 5 phrase 6

level 2: 8 1 4.5 4.5 2.5 2 3 11.5 10 7.5 1.5 5.5 8

Example 25 shows us that <0 1 423> can associate any

Example 21b. Tenney/Polansky algorithm applied to timepoints in Op. 19 No. 4

level : 27 1 7 1 8 6 2 2 2 2 2 22 2 2 2 28+ 8 12 426.62.6 .6 2 12 13 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 4 12 4 12

time intervals: 2 7 1 (etc.fromEx.21b)

level 1 sums: 6 118 1012 11 10 5 313 4 34 1148 4 4 32+ 9 13 73.613.6 7 4 22 26 58 4 32 10 4 4339 10 5 13 13 13

level 2: 17 18 13 31 22 52+ 22 24.2 11.6 52 18 19 33 44

associations: pitch set timepoint set

Result: Segment after second chord!?

with repetition: with simultaneity:

Example 27. "Impossible melodies" and onto mappings that

Example 28. General contour types Note:

Limitations Relation type Requirements

no repetitions, one-to-one, onto p=n p! <1 02> 2 0 O