Unit 4 :

Non-linear Data Structure

◤

Graph
◤
What is a graph?
▪ A data structure that consists of a set of nodes (vertices) and a set
of edges that relate the nodes to each other

▪ The set of edges describes relationships among the vertices

◤
Formal definition of graphs

▪ A graph G is defined as follows:

G=(V, E)

V(G): a finite, nonempty set of vertices

E(G): a set of edges (pairs of vertices)

◤
Directed vs. Undirected graphs
▪ When the edges in a graph have no direction, the graph is
called undirected
◤
Directed vs. undirected graphs (cont.)
▪ When the edges in a graph have a direction, the graph is called
directed (or digraph)

Warning: if the graph

is directed, the order
of the vertices in
each edge is
E(Graph2) = {(1,3) (3,1) (5,9) (9,11) (5,7)(9,9)(11,1)}
important !!
◤ Trees vs graphs
▪ Trees are special cases of graphs!!
▪ A connected graph with no cycles is called a tree.
 Graph Terminology
◤

A dj a ce n t Ve rt ice s a r e t wo
▪
vertic e s t ha t a r e j oin e d by
an edge.

▪ Adjacent Edges are two

edg e s t h at in t er s ec t at a
vertex.
◤

▪ Adjacent nodes/Vertices: two nodes are adjacent if they are

connected by an edge

5 is not adjacent to 7
7 is adjacent from 5
 Graph Terminology
◤

▪ The de g r ee o f a v erte x is
the number of edges at
that vertex.
◤
Degree, In-degree, Out-degree

▪ Degree of every vertex is 3

◤
Degree, In-degree, Out-degree
 Graph Terminology
◤

▪ A pa t h is a s e q u e nc e o f
vertices such that each
v er t e x is a dj a c e n t t o t h e
next. I n a p a t h , e a ch e dg e
ca n b e t r av e l e d o n l y o n ce .

e n gt h o f a p at h is t h e
• The l
num b er o f ed g e s in t h at
path.
 Graph Terminology
◤

• A p a t h t h at s ta r t s a n d
ends a t t h e s a m e v e r t e x is
c a l l ed a c ir c u it / c y c l e .
◤
Cycle
 Graph Terminology
◤

C o m p l e te g r ap h : a g r a p h in
• A y
e v e r y v ert e x is d ire c t l
which
connected to every other
vertex
◤
Graph terminology (cont.)
▪ What is the number of edges in a complete directed graph with N
vertices?

▪ Total number of edges:

N * (N-1)
◤
Graph terminology (cont.)
▪ What is the number of edges in a complete undirected graph
with N vertices?

▪ Total number of edges:

N * (N-1) / 2
 Graph Terminology
◤

r a p h is c o n ne c t ed if a n y
• Ag
by
two vertices can be joined
t h . I f th is is n o t p os s ib l e
a pa
then the graph is
disconnected.
◤
Connected vs. Disconnected Graph
 Graph Terminology
◤

eigh ted g r a p h : a gr ap h in
• AW
which each edge carries a
value
◤

▪ Weighted graph: a graph in which each edge carries a value

 A
1) Find the degree of D
each vertex.
2) Is A adjacent to B? C
Is D adjacent to A?
Is E adjacent to
itself?
Is C adjacent to
itself? E
3) Is AB adjacent to
BC? B
Is CE adjacent to
BD?
◤
Graph implementation
▪ Array-based implementation
▪ A 1D array is used to represent the vertices
▪ A 2D array (adjacency matrix) is used to represent the edges
◤
Array-based implementation
◤
Linked-list implementation
▪ A 1D array is used to represent the vertices

▪ A list is used for each vertex v which contains the vertices

which are adjacent from v (adjacency list)
◤
Linked-list implementation
27
◤
Graph Representation

▪ For graphs to be computationally useful, they have to be

conveniently represented in programs

▪ There are two computer representations of graphs:

▪ Adjacency matrix representation

▪ Adjacency lists representation

CS 103
28
◤
Adjacency Matrix Representation

▪ In this representation, each graph of n nodes is represented by an

n x n matrix A, that is, a two-dimensional array A

▪ The nodes are labeled as 1,2,…,n

▪ A[i][j] = 1 if (i,j) is an edge

▪ A[i][j] = 0 if (i,j) is not an edge

CS 103
◤
Adjacency Matrix

1 2

3 4

5
◤ Adjacency Matrix of Directed and Undirected Graph
◤
Adjacency Matrix for Weighted Graph
32
◤
Pros and Cons of Adjacency Matrices

▪ Pros:

▪ Simple to implement

▪ Easy and fast to tell if a pair (i,j) is an edge: simply check if

A[i][j] is 1 or 0

▪ Cons:

▪ No matter how few edges the graph has, the matrix takes
O(n2) in memory
CS 103
33
◤
Adjacency Lists Representation

▪ A graph of n nodes is represented by a one-dimensional array L of

linked lists, where
▪ L[i] is the linked list containing all the nodes adjacent from
node i.
▪ The nodes in the list L[i] are in no particular order
CS 103
◤
Adjacency Lists Representation
◤
Example(2)
0
0

1 2 1
3
2
0 1 2 3
1 0 2 3
0 1

2 0 1 3
1 0 2

0 1 2
2
3

G G
1 2
◤
Example(3)

0 1 2
0 4 0 3
1
2 1 5 2 0 3

3 6 3 1 2

4 5

7 5 4 6

6 5 7

7 6

An undirected graph with n vertices and e edges ==> n head nodes

◤
Graph Traversal Orders

▪ Depth-first search (DFS)

- Implemented using Stack

▪ Breadth-first search (BFS)

- Implemented using Stack
◤
Depth-first search (DFS)

Step 1: Initialize each node in G in ready state

Step 2: Push the starting node A on the stack

Step 3: Repeat Steps 4 and 5 until STACK is empty

Step 4: Pop the top node N. Process it and set its status as processed
state

Step 5: Push on the stack all the neighbors of N

[END OF LOOP]

Step 6: EXIT
◤
Breadth-first search (BFS)

Step 1: Initialize each node in G in ready state

Step 2: Enqueue the starting node A in the queue

Step 3: Repeat Steps 4 and 5 until queue is empty

Step 4: Dequeue the front element node N. Process it and set its
status as processed state

Step 5: Enqueue in the queue all the neighbors of N

[END OF LOOP]

Step 6: EXIT
◤
Graph Traversal Orders
The order we explore the vertices depends upon the data
structure used to hold the discovered vertices yet to be fully
explored:
∙ Queue - by storing the vertices in a first-in, first out (FIFO)
queue, we explore the oldest unexplored vertices first. Thus
we radiate out slowly from the starting vertex, defining a so-
called breadth-first search.
∙ Stack - by storing the vertices in a last-in, first-out (LIFO)
stack, we explore the vertices by constantly visiting a new
neighbor if one is available; we back up only when
surrounded by previously discovered vertices. This defines
a so-called depth-first search.
41
◤
Breadth First Search
2 4 8

s 5 7

3 6 9
42
◤
Breadth First Search
Shortest path 1
from s
2 4 8

0 s 5 7

3 6 9

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: s

Top of queue
Finished
43
◤
Breadth First Search
1
2 4 8

0 s 5 7

3 6 9

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: s 2

Top of queue
Finished
44
◤
Breadth First Search
1
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1

3 6 9

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: s 2 3

Top of queue
Finished
45
◤
Breadth First Search
1
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1

3 6 9

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 2 3 5

Top of queue
Finished
46
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1

3 6 9

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 2 3 5

Top of queue
Finished
47
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2
2 4 8

5 already discovered:
0 s 5 7
don't enqueue
1

3 6 9

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 2 3 5 4

Top of queue
Finished
48
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1

3 6 9

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 2 3 5 4

Top of queue
Finished
49
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1

3 6 9

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 3 5 4

Top of queue
Finished
50
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1

3 6 9

1 2

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 3 5 4

Top of queue
Finished
51
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1

3 6 9

1 2

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 3 5 4 6

Top of queue
Finished
52
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1

3 6 9

1 2

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 5 4 6

Top of queue
Finished
53
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1

3 6 9

1 2

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 5 4 6

Top of queue
Finished
54
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1

3 6 9

1 2

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 4 6

Top of queue
Finished
55
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2 3
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1

3 6 9

1 2

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 4 6

Top of queue
Finished
56
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2 3
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1

3 6 9

1 2

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 4 6 8

Top of queue
Finished
57
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2 3
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1 3

3 6 9

1 2

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 6 8

Top of queue
Finished
58
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2 3
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1 3

3 6 9

1 2 3

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 6 8 7

Top of queue
Finished
59
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2 3
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1 3

3 6 9

1 2 3

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 6 8 7 9

Top of queue
Finished
60
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2 3
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1 3

3 6 9

1 2 3

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 8 7 9

Top of queue
Finished
61
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2 3
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1 3

3 6 9

1 2 3

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 7 9

Top of queue
Finished
62
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2 3
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1 3

3 6 9

1 2 3

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 7 9

Top of queue
Finished
63
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2 3
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1 3

3 6 9

1 2 3

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 7 9

Top of queue
Finished
64
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2 3
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1 3

3 6 9

1 2 3

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 7 9

Top of queue
Finished
65
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2 3
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1 3

3 6 9

1 2 3

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 9

Top of queue
Finished
66
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2 3
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1 3

3 6 9

1 2 3

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 9

Top of queue
Finished
67
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2 3
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1 3

3 6 9

1 2 3

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue: 9

Top of queue
Finished
68
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2 3
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1 3

3 6 9

1 2 3

Undiscovered
Discovered Queue:

Top of queue
Finished
69
◤
Breadth First Search
1 2 3
2 4 8

0 s 5 7
1 3

3 6 9

1 2 3

Level Graph
Minimum spanning trees
◤
Definition

▪ A Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) is a subgraph of an undirected

graph such that the subgraph spans (includes) all nodes, is
connected, is acyclic, and has minimum total edge weight
◤
Minimum Spanning Tree Algorithm

▪ Kruskal’s Algorithms

▪ Prim’s Algorithms
◤
Algorithm Characteristics

▪ Both Prim’s and Kruskal’s Algorithms work with

undirected graphs
▪ Both work with weighted and unweighted graphs but are
more interesting when edges are weighted
▪ Both are greedy algorithms that produce optimal solutions
 Minimum Connector Algorithms

Kruskal’s algorithm Prim’s algorithm

1. Select the shortest edge in a 1. Select any vertex

network
2. Select the shortest edge
2. Select the next shortest edge connected to that vertex
which does not create a cycle
3. Select the shortest edge
3. Repeat step 2 until all connected to any vertex
vertices have been connected already connected

4. Repeat step 3 until all

vertices have been
connected
Kruskal’s Algorithm

Work with edges, rather than nodes

Two steps:
– Sort edges by increasing edge weight
– Select the first |V| – 1 edges that do not
generate a cycle
◤ Example
A cable company want to connect five villages to their network
which currently extends to the market town of Avonford. What is the
minimum length of cable needed?

Brinleigh 5
Cornwell

3
4
8 6

8
Avonford Fingley Donster
7

5
4
2

Edan
We model the situation as a network, then the
problem is to find the minimum connector for the
network

B 5
C

3
4
8 6

8
A F D
7

5
4
2

E
 Kruskal’s Algorithm

List the edges in

order of size:
B 5
C
ED 2
3 AB 3
4 AE 4
8 6
CD 4
BC 5
8
EF 5
A D
7 F CF 6
AF 7
5 BF 8
4 CF 8
2

E
 Kruskal’s Algorithm

Select the shortest

edge in the network
B 5
C
ED 2
3
4
8 6

8
A D
7 F

5
4
2

E
 Kruskal’s Algorithm

Select the next shortest

edge which does not
B 5 create a cycle
C

3 ED 2
4 AB 3
8 6

8
A D
7 F

5
4
2

E
 Kruskal’s Algorithm

Select the next shortest

edge which does not
B 5 create a cycle
C

3
ED 2
4 AB 3
8 6
CD 4 (or AE 4)
8
A D
7 F

5
4
2

E
 Kruskal’s Algorithm

Select the next shortest

edge which does not
B 5 create a cycle
C

3
ED 2
4 AB 3
8 6
CD 4
AE 4
8
A D
7 F

5
4
2

E
 Kruskal’s Algorithm

Select the next shortest

edge which does not
B 5 create a cycle
C

3
ED 2
4 AB 3
8 6
CD 4
AE 4
8
BC 5 – forms a cycle
A D
7 F EF 5

5
4
2

E
 Kruskal’s Algorithm

All vertices have been

connected.
B 5
C
The solution is
3
4 ED 2
8 6
AB 3
CD 4
8
AE 4
A D
7 F EF 5

5
4 Total weight of tree: 18
2

E
Walk-Through
Consider an undirected, weight graph
3
10
F C
A 4
4
3
8
6
5
4
B D
4
H 1
2
3
G 3
E
 Sort the edges by increasing edge weight
3
10
F C edge d edge dv

A 4 3 v (B,E) 4
8 4 (D,E) 1
6 (B,F) 4
5
4
B D (D,G) 2 (B,H) 4
4 (E,G) 3
H 1
(A, 5
2 (C,D) 3 H)
3
G 3
E (G, 3 (D,F) 6
H) (A,B) 8
(C,F) 3 (A,F) 10
(B,C) 4
 Select first |V|–1 edges which do not
generate a cycle
3
10
F C edge d edge dv

A 4 3 v (B,E) 4
8 4 (D,E) 1 √
6 (B,F) 4
5
4
B D (D,G) 2 (B,H) 4
4 (E,G) 3
H 1
(A, 5
2 (C,D) 3 H)
3
G 3
E (G, 3 (D,F) 6
H) (A,B) 8
(C,F) 3 (A,F) 10
(B,C) 4
 Select first |V|–1 edges which do not
generate a cycle
3
10
F C edge d edge dv

A 4 3 v (B,E) 4
8 4 (D,E) 1 √
6 (B,F) 4
5
4
B D (D,G) 2 √ (B,H) 4
4 (E,G) 3
H 1
(A, 5
2 (C,D) 3 H)
3
G 3
E (G, 3 (D,F) 6
H) (A,B) 8
(C,F) 3 (A,F) 10
(B,C) 4
 Select first |V|–1 edges which do not
generate a cycle
3
10
F C edge d edge dv

A 4 3 v (B,E) 4
8 4 (D,E) 1 √
6 (B,F) 4
5
4
B D (D,G) 2 √ (B,H) 4
4 (E,G) 3 χ
H 1
(A, 5
2 (C,D) 3 H)
3
G 3
E (G, 3 (D,F) 6
H) (A,B) 8
(C,F) 3 (A,F) 10
Accepting edge (E,G) would create a cycle
(B,C) 4
 Select first |V|–1 edges which do not
generate a cycle
3
10
F C edge d edge dv

A 4 3 v (B,E) 4
8 4 (D,E) 1 √
6 (B,F) 4
5
4
B D (D,G) 2 √ (B,H) 4
4 (E,G) 3 χ
H 1
(A, 5
2 (C,D) 3 √ H)
3
G 3
E (G, 3 (D,F) 6
H) (A,B) 8
(C,F) 3 (A,F) 10
(B,C) 4
 Select first |V|–1 edges which do not
generate a cycle
3
10
F C edge d edge dv

A 4 3 v (B,E) 4
8 4 (D,E) 1 √
6 (B,F) 4
5
4
B D (D,G) 2 √ (B,H) 4
4 (E,G) 3 χ
H 1
(A, 5
2 (C,D) 3 √ H)
3
G 3
E (G, 3 √ (D,F) 6
H) (A,B) 8
(C,F) 3 (A,F) 10
(B,C) 4
 Select first |V|–1 edges which do not
generate a cycle
3
10
F C edge d edge dv

A 4 3 v (B,E) 4
8 4 (D,E) 1 √
6 (B,F) 4
5
4
B D (D,G) 2 √ (B,H) 4
4 (E,G) 3 χ
H 1
(A, 5
2 (C,D) 3 √ H)
3
G 3
E (G, 3 √ (D,F) 6
H) (A,B) 8
(C,F) 3 √ (A,F) 10
(B,C) 4
 Select first |V|–1 edges which do not
generate a cycle
3
10
F C edge d edge dv

A 4 3 v (B,E) 4
8 4 (D,E) 1 √
6 (B,F) 4
5
4
B D (D,G) 2 √ (B,H) 4
4 (E,G) 3 χ
H 1
(A, 5
2 (C,D) 3 √ H)
3
G 3
E (G, 3 √ (D,F) 6
H) (A,B) 8
(C,F) 3 √ (A,F) 10
(B,C) 4 √
 Select first |V|–1 edges which do not
generate a cycle
3
10
F C edge d edge dv

A 4 3 v (B,E) 4 χ
8 4 (D,E) 1 √
6 (B,F) 4
5
4
B D (D,G) 2 √ (B,H) 4
4 (E,G) 3 χ
H 1
(A, 5
2 (C,D) 3 √ H)
3
G 3
E (G, 3 √ (D,F) 6
H) (A,B) 8
(C,F) 3 √ (A,F) 10
(B,C) 4 √
 Select first |V|–1 edges which do not
generate a cycle
3
10
F C edge d edge dv

A 4 3 v (B,E) 4 χ
8 4 (D,E) 1 √
6 (B,F) 4 χ
5
4
B D (D,G) 2 √ (B,H) 4
4 (E,G) 3 χ
H 1
(A, 5
2 (C,D) 3 √ H)
3
G 3
E (G, 3 √ (D,F) 6
H) (A,B) 8
(C,F) 3 √ (A,F) 10
(B,C) 4 √
 Select first |V|–1 edges which do not
generate a cycle
3
10
F C edge d edge dv

A 4 3 v (B,E) 4 χ
8 4 (D,E) 1 √
6 (B,F) 4 χ
5
4
B D (D,G) 2 √ (B,H) 4 χ
4 (E,G) 3 χ
H 1
(A, 5
2 (C,D) 3 √ H)
3
G 3
E (G, 3 √ (D,F) 6
H) (A,B) 8
(C,F) 3 √ (A,F) 10
(B,C) 4 √
 Select first |V|–1 edges which do not
generate a cycle
3
10
F C edge d edge dv

A 4 3 v (B,E) 4 χ
8 4 (D,E) 1 √
6 (B,F) 4 χ
5
4
B D (D,G) 2 √ (B,H) 4 χ
4 (E,G) 3 χ
H 1
(A, 5 √
2 (C,D) 3 √ H)
3
G 3
E (G, 3 √ (D,F) 6
H) (A,B) 8
(C,F) 3 √ (A,F) 10
(B,C) 4 √
 Select first |V|–1 edges which do not
generate a cycle
3
F C edge d edge dv

A 3 v (B,E) 4 χ
4 (D,E) 1 √ (B,F) 4 χ
5
B D (D,G) 2 √ (B,H) 4 χ
H (E,G) 3 χ (A, 5 √
2 1
(C,D) 3 √ H)
3
G E (G,
H)
3 √ (D,F)
(A,B)
6
8
}
not
considere
d
(C,F) 3 √ (A,F) 10
Done
(B,C) 4 √

Total Cost = Σ dv = 21
 Prim’s Algorithm

Select any vertex

B 5 A
C

3 Select the shortest

4 edge connected to
8 6
that vertex
8
AB 3
A D
7 F

5
4
2

E
 Prim’s Algorithm

Select the shortest

edge connected to
B 5 any vertex already
C
connected.
3
4 AE 4
8 6

8
A D
7 F

5
4
2

E
 Prim’s Algorithm

Select the shortest

edge connected to
B 5 any vertex already
C
connected.
3
4 ED 2
8 6

8
A D
7 F

5
4
2

E
 Prim’s Algorithm

Select the shortest

edge connected to
B 5 any vertex already
C
connected.
3
4 DC 4
8 6

8
A D
7 F

5
4
2

E
 Prim’s Algorithm

Select the shortest

edge connected to
B 5 any vertex already
C
connected.
3
4 EF 5
8 6

8
A D
7 F

5
4
2

E
 Prim’s Algorithm

All vertices have been

connected.
B 5
C
The solution is
3
4 AB 3
8 6
AE 4
ED 2
8
DC 4
A D
7 F EF 5

5
4 Total weight of tree: 18
2

E
 Some points to note

• Both algorithms will always give solutions with the same length.

• They will usually select edges in a different order – you must show
this in your workings.

• Occasionally they will use different edges – this may happen when
you have to choose between edges with the same length. In this
case there is more than one minimum connector for the network.