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BRAIDS AND BRAIDING

a
D. Brunnschweiler
a
College of Technology, Manchester University ,
Published online: 07 Jan 2009.

To cite this article: D. Brunnschweiler (1953) BRAIDS AND BRAIDING, Journal of the Textile Institute Proceedings, 44:9, P666-
P686, DOI: 10.1080/19447015308687874
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19447015308687874

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 Proceedings

BRAIDS AND BRAIDING

By D. Brunnschweiler

INTRODUCTION
Braid is a minor but distinctive form of textile cloth. The *Encyclo-
paedia Britannica' under 'Braid' states :—
'*A plait, especially a plait of hair, also a plaited tape woven of wool,
silk, gold thread, etc., used for trimming or binding (O. Eng. brogden, to
move quickly to and fro, hence to weave) and the narrow bands, bordered
with open work, used in making point lace"4.
This single sentence in a work devoting many illustrated paragraphs to
other textile manufactures, is typical of the scanty information which has
been collected and published on the subject, perhaps especially in English.
Several other internationally known encyclopaedias contain no reference at
all to braid or braiding^^ though there are exceptions^,*.
Surprisingly, the same state of affairs exists in technical literature.
Thus, in Barlow's 'History and Principles of Weaving'- details are given of
the development of weaving, knitting and lace-making machinery, but no
mention of braiding machinery occurs. In 'The Textile Industries'^^ again
there is no mention, and similar neglect is to be found in the Textile Edu-
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cator'3** and in the very comprehensive German work 'Die Geschichte der
Textil Industrie'2^. Two outstanding exceptions are the 'Textil-Lexikon'^®
and 'Technologie der Textilfasern',-' both containing detailed descriptions
of braiding machinery.
In textile trade periodicals the same dearth of information exists. During
the last decade a few cursory articles on braiding machinery and braid manu-
facture have appeared^^. ^^-^^, ^s, 36-38 ^nd have done so in previous years,
but none has done more than touch the hem of the subject.
It is the object of this paper to survey the underlying principles of braid
manufacture. A further paper is being prepared dealing with aspects of the
geometry of braid structure and the load-extension properties of certain
braids.
Definition
The derivation of the word *braid'" provides a good example of the
difficulties facing a textile historian. Old forms of the word were applied
to any textile structure, whether woven, braided or of lace, nothing more
being implied than the intertwining or interlacing of threads—usuaUy to
form a narrow cloth. The mechanism of cloth manufacture has forced the
early freedom of cloth-makers into more rigid patterns, and to-day we are
able to draw fairly clear lines between the various basic types of thread inter-
lacing, if only because we can differentiate between the products of different
machines. It follows then, that the limited meaning of the word 'braid*
in the present context is of relatively modern introduction^.
Among several definitions that have been suggested the following merit
attention.
BRAID.41 " A narrow tubular or flat fabric produced by intertwining a
single set of yarns according to a definite pattern."
BRAIDED FABRIC.40 **A structure produced by interlacing several ends
of yarn in a mariner such that the paths of the yarns are not parallel
to the braid axis."
BRAID.41 ' T o entwine three or more strands by passing over another in
such a manner that each strand winds a sinuous course through the
ribbonlike or ropelike texture, that is thus produced."
 Braids and Braiding—Brunnschweiler

The two mechanically produced cloth structures with which braid may
conceivably be confused are woven and lace fabric. Whereas woven cloth is
made from two distinct sets of threads, braid uses a similar type of inter-
lacing with only one set of threads. The type of interlacing in braid is such
that neighbouring threads do not make complete turns about each other,
The definitions quoted above make clear the difference between braid
and woven cloth, but not between braid and lace. For the purpose of this
paper, therefore, the following definition will be used.
BRAID. Cloth formed by the interlacing of one set of threads in such a
manner that no two adjacent threads make complete turns about
each other.
Nature of Braiding
Braiding implies more than just the formation of braids ; it includes
also the formation of braided cords. A braid is a true textile fabric'*^,**'^ i.e.,
a laminar structure. A braided cord is not a lamina but an essentially solid
and rope-like structure. The threads of such a cord pass through the very
body of the cord and do not remain on its periphery, as would be the case
with a cord formed by a tubular braid encasing a core. Braided cord is
important as an example of a cord made from threads without the employ-
ment of twist, but it is not a braid and so falls outside the immediate scope
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of this paper. No acceptable definition of braiding has been recorded, so

the following will be used.
BRAIDING. The production of ribbonlike or ropelike textures by the
interlacing of one set of threads in such a manner that no two
adjacent threads make complete turns about each other.
*Plaiting' will be taken to be synonymous with 'Braiding,' though there
is some looseness in the use of the term^**,^®,".
Every strand which helps to form a braid has a path of its own to follow,
either from side to side of the braid if it is flat, or round and round if it is
tubular. At any given time, half the strands must be travelling in one direction
at some angle to the braid axis, while .the other half must be travelling in the
opposite direction passing over and under the strands of the first group.
It is found that, in general, to achieve this type of interlacing each strand
must be individually controlled (i.e., strands cannot be contained on beams—
each strand requiring a separate package) so that the greater the width or cir-
cumference of the braid, the greater the number of strands and the larger
the size of braiding machine required. Compared with most other cloth-
making processes, braiding needs a large amount of machinery to produce a
small area of cloth. Attempts have been made to design machines for pro-
ducing very wide braids''^ but none has been successful and braid width is still
practically limited by machine size.
Before proceeding further, a distinction must be made between braided
structures and what is sometimes called 'Braid Lace'^^.-^ Braid lace is so
termed because the machines which produce it closely resemble braiding
machines for making fancy braids. Nevertheless, the structure is true lace
and will not be considered further, except to say that it is possible for a
narrow cloth to be part braid and part lace, a situation creating difficulties
for the pedantic cataloguer.
Uses of Braids
Where narrow and tubular fabrics are concerned, braiding has com-
petitors in both knitting and weaving, but on account of its peculiar properties
 Proceedings

and advantages for certain purposes, it is improbable that braiding will ever
be entirely replaced by either of these processes. The uses to which braids
are currently put include.
Parachute Cords Cord Shock Absorbers
Boot and Shoe Laces Fishing Lines
Wicking Packings
Clothes Lines Sash Cords
Driving Bands Flexible Hose Coverings
Insulated Sleevings Tapes and Bindings
Ties and Girdles Coat, Dress and Lingerie Trimmings
Tubes for Rubberising
These form a small, randomly chosen, selection of some uses of braids,
which, it is apparent, range from heavy industrial applications at one extreme
to dress novelties at the other.
Historical
The beginnings of braiding, as of most textile processes are very difficult
to trace, but it seems likely that braiding is at least as old as any other textile
operation^,23,25^39 Quite complicated braid structures have been made during
early civilisations^.^ and simple operations such as the plaiting of hair and
grasses must have been practised in primitive times^^"^^,^*,^^.
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The design of machines to produce braids is generally considered to have

taken place first in France and Germany during the eighteenth century^^
The earliest British Patent relating to the subject is dated 1748^^ but
unlike their contemporaries engaged in knitting, weaving and lace-making,
British braiders seem to have lagged behind Continental inventors.
The early machines were designed to make simple plaited tapes and cords
for use as garment and shoe laces. Later, the advantage of using braid as a
covering for threads of (then) newly introduced rubber to make elastic tapes
was noted ^*,'*' and quickly developed, while about the same time machines
for manufacturing fancy braids appeared with ever increasing complications
until by the end of the nineteenth century all manner of complex and intricate
braid structures, chiefly used as dress trimmings, could be produced mech-
anically.
The growing demand for braids to cover electrical conductors turned
inventors to the task of accelerating the braiding operation, since there were
insuperable mechanical limitations to the speed of braiding with the machines
then in use. The result of this demand was the development of machines of
revolutionary design ^^-^'^able to run at least twice as fast as the older machines.
Minor improvements since the commencement of the present century have
not changed the principles of machine design utilised.

BRAIDS
Types of Braid
Braids may be classified under the following self-descriptive headings.
i. Flat Braids
ii. Tubular (or Round) Braids
iii. Fancy Braids.
Methods of Interlacing
To make a braid of given width or circumference on a relatively small
machine, it is common practice to cause several threads to interlace as one,
in tape form. For this reason, the components of a braid which interlace
independently will be called 'strands', a strand being formed by one or more
 Braids and Braiding—Brunnschweiler P669

threads running together. This distinction avoids the ambiguity which could
otherwise arise from referring to "the number of threads in a braid", a
statement which does not make clear whether the total number of threads,
or only the number of strands is in question.
Diagrammatically, it is usual to represent the two groups of strands of a
braid as crossing each other at right angles. When this is done, one of the
groups can be likened to the warp of woven cloth, and the other to the weft,
so that the method of interlacing of the braid strands is equivalent to the
weave. The weaves usually employed correspond to plain weave and various
twill weaves, but care must be taken when defining one repeat of the weave,
not to follow too closely the woven cloth analogy. One repeat of the 'braid
weave' measured along the braid axis is called a 'plait' (also 'stitch', or
*pick'), and across the braid normal to the braid axis, a 'line' (Fig. 1).

Diamond Braid
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Regular Braid

Hercules Braid

r—One Line
X—One Plait

Fig. 1
Diagrammatically then, the 'braid weave repeat' is a rectangle whose sides
make 45° angles with the strands.
Another system of defining the method of interlacing is to give the
'intersection repeat' of a strand. Thus, if a strand continuously passes
over two strands and then under two strands of the opposing group, it is
designated as 2 braid.

There are three braid weaves which are used so frequently that they have
acquired generally recognised names. These are (see Fig. 1),
 P670 Proceedings

DIAMOND BRAID, with a 1 intersection repeat

1
REGULAR or PLAIN BRAID with a 2 intersection repeat.

HERCULES BRAID, with a 3 intersection repeat.

Other simple interlacings in common use include 2

intersection repeats, to which well known names have not yet been given. Of
all these, the 2 interlacing is by far the most popular.

Warp and Core Threads

In addition to the ordinary strands which form a braid, certain extra
threads may be incorporated, not as an essential part of the fabric, but sup-
ported by the main braid structure. Such threads are invariably introduced
from stationary guide eyes in the braiding machine, and they lie straight
and without crimp, parallel to the braid axis. The term 'warp thread' seems
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(a)

The Position of Warp Two Types

Threads in a Regular of Braid
Braid Edge

(c)
Fig. 2
 Braids and Braiding—Brunnschweiler P671

well chosen to describe those which run within the wall of braid cloth (Fig.
2a), though no all-embracing term is in common use. Threads which form
the centre of a tubular braid are termed 'core threads'.
Warp and core threads may be of inextensible material whose purpose is
to limit the extension of the braid, when they are called 'gut threads'*^ ;
otherwise they may be of comparatively extensible elastic material such as
rubber. An ELASTIC BRAID is a braid containing extensible and elastic
warp or core threads: a RIGID BRAID is a braid containing no such ex-
tensible and elastic threads.

Braid Repeat
In a simple braid, a constant number of plaits is required for a strand to
leave a given point and to return to an exactly equivalent position further
along the braid. The number of plaits required to do this is the 'braid re-
peat', a quantity numerically equal to the number of strands in a flat braid,
and to half the number of strands in a tubular braid (Fig. 3).

'Mi
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One Repeat One Repeat

Flat, t3 Strand Regular Flat, 12 Strand Regular
Braid Braid

Two Repeats
16 Strand Regular
Tubular Braid
(cut along X X ' and
opened out)

R^:<«^S

Fig. 3
 P672 Proceedings
Flat Braid
Such braid is ribbonlike in appearance. Each strand follows a zig-zag
path from side to side, at the same time interlacing with other strands.
Of the two groups into which the strands of a braid may be divided, in a flat
braid each strand periodically changes its direction and so changes from one
group to the other (Fig. 3a and b).
When a strand consists of several threads, there are two alternative
ways of reversing its line of direction at the braid edge. Either the threads
can overlap at the turn (Fig. 2c), or they can follow each other round in con-
centric paths (Fig. 2b). The latter method necessitates individual thread
tensioning and additional mechanism, so is reserved for braids having only a
small number of threads.
It is sometimes stated-®.'^ that flat braids must be formed with an odd
number of strands. Basically, this is not true ; flat braids can be manu-
factured with any number of strands, from three upwards (see Fig. 3b). The
only truth in the opinion is that certain machines are so constructed that it is
impossible to make fiat braids on them with an even number of strands.

Tubular Braids
Braids of circular cross-section may be used to cover a core during the
braiding operation, they may be made as tubing to be later placed over a
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core, or they may be flattened and used as a tape of double thickness as

ffat braids. The fabric is similar to that of flat braid, without the complication
of a selvedge. Of the two groups of strands, one group spirals continuously
in a clockwise direction while interlacing, and the other in an anti-clockwise
direction. As the number of strands in each group must be equal to produce
a balanced braid, the total number of strands in a tubular braid must be
even (see Fig. 3c).
Fancy Braids
The term 'Fancy Braid' is given to any braid which is not of uniformly
simple flat or tubular construction. The connection between simple and
fancy braids is analogous to that between simple and fancy yarns. Braids
of this type are chiefly used as garment and millinery trimmings of various
sorts, of which an almost limitless number of different effects can be produced.
Nevertheless, the methods of manufacture of nearly all may be classified
under one of the following headings. . .
GROUP 1. Variations on simple braids, produced by interfering in
some way with the normal course of manufacture. Methods
include varying thread tensions, using irregular threads,
and causing loops of thread to be formed at the edge
of flat braids.
GROUP 2. Compound braids consisting of flat and/or tubular braids,
stitched together during braiding.
GROUP 3. Figured braids in which the paths of the interlacing strands
are varied during braiding to produce figured effects.
While fancy braids are frequently costly items, requiring considerable
technical ingenuity to manufacture, they are produced in relatively small
quantities only. For this reason, and because their basic method of cloth
formation is the same as for the more elementary structures, they will not
be studied in particular detail here.
 Braids and Braiding—Brunnschweiler P673

BRAIDING MACHINERY
Early Maypole Braiders
It is believed that the first machines for making braid were constructed
on the Continent of Europe during the eighteenth century^^, but the earliest
extant account of such apparatus is to be found in Letters Patenf*^ granted
to Thomas Walford of Manchester in 1748. Walford's description of his
''engine" is extremely vague, yet interesting as an illustration of a pioneering
attempt to mechanise hand plaiting. No further record of a braiding machine
occurs until that contained in a Patent Specification by John Heathcoat of
Tiverton in 1823**, already famed as the inventor of the bobbin-net lace
machine. This appears to be the first complete and illustrated account of
an English braiding machine, but Heathcoat claimed to have done no more
than to have introduced improved modifications of an existing type of mach-
ine, from which it may be supposed that in the 85 years between the dates
of these patents, braiding machines had developed from hand-operated de-
vices to power-driven machines requiring infrequent supervision. Krumme^"
notes that the first Continental machines were made entirely of wood, which
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IT
Carrier Elevations
Fig. 4
 Proceedings

was gradually superseded as a material of construction by iron, extensively

developed for this purpose in the Wupperthal region of Germany.
The early machines employed one principle of operation which is still
continued in the majority of machines constructed today, namely, that the
threads to be braided are wound on to bobbins which are moved bodily in a
horizontal plane along a serpentine path, causing the threads to interlace
as they are withdrawn from some point above the bobbins. Because of the
similarity between the paths traced by ribbon dancers round a maypole and
that of bobbins round the centre of a braiding machine the title 'Maypole'
has become attached to these braiders. The chief differences which have
existed between machines of this type have concerned the methods chosen to
propel the bobbins along their paths.
The principle of the method of propulsion used on Heathcoat's machine,
and on very many later models, is shown in Fig. 4. Each bobbin of thread (i)
is mounted on a 'carrier' consisting of a long iron pipe (ii) on the upper end
of which the bobbin is placed with a short, cut-off piece of the pipe (iii)
protruding. The pipes and their bobbins are maintained upright at all

u
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Carrier Elevations

...y

\ n
 Braids and Braidings—Brunnschweiler P675

times, being held in notches cut in the rims of revolving discs* (iv) by station-
ary plate edges (v) concentric with the discs.
The discs are geared together and overlap a distance equal to the depth
of the notches, arranged so that notches from overlapping adjacent discs
will always meet on a line connecting the disc centres. When the discs
rotate carrying with them carriers, the carriers will be held in notches of two
overlapping discs when these notches meet, and all that is necessary to cause
the carriers to move on from the rim of one disc to the rim of the next is
some sort of guide arm. This is accomplished by 'tumblers't (vi), arrow-
head shaped plates pivoted so that having directed a carrier from one disc
to the next, the movement of the carrier just directed automatically changes
the position of the tumbler in readiness to direct the next carrier passing
in the opposite direction. "Old English" machines of this type are still
in use today, though they are likely to die out since they are relatively noisy,
difficult to lubricate and slow running.
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Carriers

^yl^^^^N^

Track Plan
Fig. 6

*Also known in various places as barrels, tables, heads, Maltese crosses, horns, etc.
tAlso known in various places as winglets, directors, tappets, conductors, beaters,
etc.
 Proceedings

In 1824, John Head of Banbury described a method of bobbin propul-

sion in a Patent Specification*^, the principle of which has been continued
on many modern machines (see Fig. 5). The bobbins (i) are mounted on much
shorter carriers than on Heathcoat's model. The bases of the carriers pass
through a slot cut in a steel plate (ii), which guides them along their path.
Their lower ends terminate in feet (iii) which move between the slotted guide
plate and a second plate (iv) on which the feet rest. Radiating arms (v)
pivoted in the same position take the place of .Heathcoat's notched discs,
being geared together to push the carriers round the machine. While Heath-
coat 's braider was designed to make flat braid, and Head's to make tubular
braid, both methods of propulsion can be used for any kind of braid. Head
made no claim of originality for any single part of his machine, but only for
the combination of parts. In England little more was heard of this type of
machine for many years, but their manufacture was continued in Germany
and later they were imported for use in this country.
Modem Maypole Braiders
The majority of maypole braiders manufactured to-day*®,*^.'^~'^ are
directly descended from the machines described above. Their carriers ride
along slots in a steel plate (i), gripping the plate by means of flanges on the
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carrier feet (ii) (Fig. 6). They are moved along the slots by 'horn gears' (iii)
(successors of the earlier notched discs) mounted below the plate, the direction
of the slots in the plate effecting the cross-over from one horn gear to the
next as on Head's machine. The chief disadvantage of this method of
carrier mounting is that the flange which slides above the slotted plate supports
the weight of the carrier and it is difficult to lubricate satisfactorily.
Some recent machines^^,^®**'.*^ have been re-designed in this respect,
and can operate smoothly at higher speeds than formerly. Some of these
machines have their horn gears mounted in the same plane as the guide plate,
replacing the stationary centre-pieces of other models. The carriers are thus
partly supported by the horn gear disc and partly by the guide plate. The
discs do not overlap, but fixed guide slots situated beneath the main plate
engage with the carrier feet transferring the carrier from the control of one
disc to the next. By doing this it is possible to mount the guide slots in
enclosed oil baths, lubricating the surfaces receiving most wear without
splashing oil on the bobbins.
Carrier Paths
The carrier path determines the type of braid to be made, whether
tubular, flat or figured. For making tubular braid iU^s necessary to have
two endless intertwining tracks, usually arranged as snown on the plan in
Fig. 7a. The braid is made at the centre of the circle formed by the mean
position of the paths. One set of carriers controlling half the strands follows
the full line, while the other set controlling the remainder moves in the op-
posite direction along the dotted line. Warp threads may be introduced
through the points marked 'A', the hollow pivots of the horn gears.
To make flat braid it is customary to arrange the carrier paths in a
circle about the point of braid formation, but here we have only one endless
track intertwining with itself, doubling back where the selvedge is formed
(Fig. 7b). Heathcoat's machine was unusual in having the horn gear centres
arranged on a straight line and not round a circle (Fig. 9a).
The manufacture of many fancy braids requires more complicated track
plans and horn gear arrangements (see, e.g., ^^). Figured braids are made on
machines with movable guides where tracks join (equivalent to railway track
 Braids and Braiding—Brunnschweiler P677

§
I
\
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Fig. 7
points) controlled by a jacquard unit which can deflect carriers on to alternate
paths to produce various types of interlacing. Otherwise the track plan
usually fixes the type of braid which can be made on a machine, though some
machines have provision for converting a tubular braider into a flat braider.
Carriers
The ideal carrier is one which can accommodate a large supply of yarn,
operate at high speeds and provide a constant and easily adjusted yarn
tension. Most of the difficulties which prevent the achievement of this
ideal are derived directly from the necessity of moving the carriers along
the serpentine track and the braid being withdrawn normal to the track plane.
Because of these two features of maypole braider design, the distance from
the carrier to the point of braid formation is continuously changing, super-
imposing on the small, constant demand for yarn a much larger temporary
demand for yarn to be released from or returned to the bobbin, depending
upon whether the carrier is moving away from or towards the point of form-
ation, and varying in magnitude with the size of horn gear.
The usual way of allowing for this demand is to provide a suitably
 P678 Proceedings

tensioned loop of yarn fed from the bobbin as required. The length of
yarn forming the loop is continuously being shortened as yarn is taken from it
to be made into braid, so that it eventually becomes too short to pay out yarn
as the carrier is moving away from the braiding point ; when this happens the
bobbin is made to feed some more yarn into the loop. Normally the bobbin is
connected to a ratchet wheel either as part of the bobbin or attached to the
bobbin spindle. Whenever the loop of yarn becomes too short the bobbin is
allowed to turn for one or two teeth of the ratchet to release the necessary
yarn.
Carriers are termed 'top latch' (Fig. 4 and 5) or 'bottom latch' (Fig. 6)
depending upon whether the ratchet is mounted on top of or below the bobbin.
The tensioning of the loop may be either by dead weight (Fig. 4 and 5) or by
spring (Fig. 6), and the loop may be formed either inside the hollow bobbin
spindle (Fig. 4) or on the side of the carrier (Fig. 5 and 6). One advantage of
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Fig. 8
 Braids and Braiding—Brunnschweiler P679

the long hollow pipe on Heathcoat's braider is that heavier weights and/or
longer loops of yarn may be accommodated than on many other models.
As the braiding operation proceeds, the tensioning weights move up and down,
their inertia causing serious yarn tension variation as the speed of the carriers
is increased. Spring tensioning also introduces a certain amount of tension
variation, but carrier speed has much less effect on this. Generally, dead
weights give the least tension variation at very low speeds, while at high
speeds tension springs are better.

Horn Gears
A 'horn gear' consists of a circular disc with notches cut at uniform
intervals round its circumference, mounted on the same shaft as a toothed
pinion. The parts of the disc between the notches are termed the 'horns'.
On any machine the number of teeth of a pinion is a multiple of the number of
notches or horns of the disc. The number of horns per disc limits the braid
weave.
With the simpler braid weaves the movement of the carriers repeats
after passing every two horn gears, thus completing one line of the weave
repeat. Taking the simplest weave with a 1 intersection repeat and one
1
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carrier per strand, horn gears having two diametrically opposite notches are
the minimum required. The carrier movement for four consecutive ^-
revolutions of the horn gears (i.e., one repeat) is shown diagrammatically in
plan in Fig. 8a-d. For 2 interlacing, horn gears with four notches
2
per disc are needed, arranged in plan in Fig. 8e, while 3 interlacing
3
requires horn gears with six notches (Fig. 8f).
On a flat braider, the terminal horn gears which reverse the general
direction of the carriers to form the braid edge must have a carefully deter-
mined number of notches. If one of the horn gears used to form the body
of the braid were to be used as a terminal gear, it is easy to demonstrate
that two carriers moving in opposite directions would be competing to occupy
the same notch. Of the several permissible sizes of terminal horn gear which
can be used in any given case, each will give a slightly different appearance
to the braid edge.

High-speed Braiders
In a maypole braider of normal design the machine speed is limited
by the serpentine path of the carriers which imposes on them a continuously
changing radial movement towards and away from the point of braid form-
ation as they are propelled round the machine. Such movement may limit
machine speed on mechanical grounds (due to carrier inertia) or on textile
grounds (due to undesirable changes in thread tension). The latter con-
sideration led Heathcoat, whose machine produced flat braid, to arrange
the track plate in the form of an arc of a circle in the vertical plane with
the braiding point as centre, so that the carriers were always the same dis-
tance away from the braiding point (Fig. 9a). The same object was achieved
later by Taylor*^, who arranged for the plane of the serpentine track to be
situated around the vertical wall of a hollow cylinder, with the braid being
formed and withdrawn along the cylinder axis (Fig. 9b). Both of these
methods largely solved the problem of yarn tension variation during braiding,
 P68O Proceedings

Section
Through
Track Plate
(a)

0000000000 Plan

Perspective
View of
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Track Plate

Section
Through
Braid Axis

Fig. 9
but the machines could not run much faster than usual because of mechanical
complications.
Krumme^^ states that the solution of both mechanical and textile
speed limitations was first discussed in Germany in 1885, but as early as 1866
a British Patent Specification*^ contained details of a machine which had
overcome the difficulties. This machine was followed by others ^""^* until
in the first years of the present century there were a large number of
different solutions by different workers^^"^*, resulting in the industrial success
of the so called 'high-speed braiders' for the manufacture of tubular

In these machines the bobbins follow continuous circular paths centred

about the axis of braid withdrawal, one half travelling in a clockwise and the
other half in an anti-clockwise direction. To accomplish the necessary
interlacing of the threads, a short length of thread from each of the bobbins
of one set is passed over and under the bobbins of the other set as they go by.
The principle of operation is shown in Fig. 9c which depicts a section through
 Braids and Braiding—Brunnschweiler

the centre of an imaginary high-speed machine. Bobbins AA' are rotating

in the opposite direction to bobbins BB', both sets moving with a constant
angular velocity at a fixed distance from the braiding point C, mounted on
plates X and Y respectively. Bobbins BB' are mounted on carriers supported
on plate Y by either the leading or trailing ends of the carriers. When a thread
moving in the opposite direction must pass under one of these carriers,
the carrier is held at its rear when meeting the thread ; as the thread passes
under the centre of the carrier the rear support is withdrawn to allow the
thread to pass, and simultaneously the front support is engaged. In this
way the carriers BB' permit threads to pass uiider them while being at all
times supported and driven by plate Y.
Whether a thread from one of the bobbins AA' shall pass over or under
one of the carriers BB' is determined by the position of the yarn guides E.
These guides may take the form of cam-operated guide eyes ; of guide eyes
mounted on rotating arms tracing a cycloid path; or of various types of
guide slot and deflector. The bobbins BB' and their carriers are usually
driven by the plate Y either by means of alternately disconnected studs, or
by pinions engaging racks fixed to the carriers. These machines can operate
at least twice as fast as the fastest maypole braider, though they are
considerably more costly to construct.
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SOME DETAILS OF BRAID MANUFACTURE

Braid Haul-off
As braid is formed it is withdrawn either by lapping round a haul-off
capstan or by passing between two withdrawal rollers. In each case the
rate of withdrawal must be constant to produce a uniform braid. On any
machine it is usual for the rate of interlacing to be constant, and for the rate
of withdrawal to be altered as different plait spacings are required.
For given yarns, the plait spacing determines the angle (a) between
the two sets of strands of a braid. If the length of braid withdrawn per braid
repeat is (r) cm and the braid circumference or width is (s) cm, then
a

for tubular braids,

a 2s
and = tan
for flat braids.
Point of Tubular Braid Formation
The point of braid formation must occur somewhere between the yarn
carriers and the point of withdrawal. Tubular braid is almost invariably
withdrawn along an axis normal to the plane in which the carriers move
and passing through the centre of the circle formed by the mean carrier
positions.
Often, it may be possible to allow the point of formation to find its
own position along the braid axis, when it might be expected that the angle
formed between the converging strands and the braid axis would be -z. This
indeed happens if a cylindrical core is covered by strands from carriers moving
in one direction only (see Fig. 10, the carriers normally moving in the opposite
direction are running empty of yarn) ; but as soon as strands moving in the
 P682 Proceedings

Level of First
Points of Contact
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90
Elevation
Fig. 10
opposite direction are introduced and allowed to interlace with those of the
first set, the frictional force acting between threads as they slide over and
under each other causes their otherwise direct path from the carriers to the
braiding point to be distorted. Fig. l i b shows a plan of this effect-
exaggerated—in a 16-strand braid, together with a side elevation (Fig. 11a)
illustrating the characteristic funnel-shaped outline of the converging strands,
and the difference between the angle they make with the braid axis and
a
angle -r-. This effect, which occurs when making braid with or without
a core, results in the braiding point being brought nearer to the carriers than
would otherwise be expected. It also makes the determination of the point
of formation more arbitrary, since there is no clear dividing line between
the unbraided strands and the completed braid.
It follows that it is only possible to forecast the point at which the braid
will be formed empirically, depending upon the plait spacing, the number of
strands in the braid, and the yarn tension, rigidity and frictional properties.
When a is small, the point of formation may occur so far away from the
carriers that it is beyond the furthest point of braid haul-off provided for on a
machine. In such cases it is necessary to interfere with the path of the strands
between the carriers and the braiding point. The most common method
adopted is to interpose a ring or tube of slightly larger diameter than the
braid, through which the strands pass (Fig. 12a). This reduces, in effect, the
diameter of the carrier path circle to that of the ring or tube—the smaller the
ring diameter, the nearer to it will the braid be formed. Such a ring is known
as a 'former' or 'die' ; it is often used even when there is room on the machine
for the braiding point to find the position freely, since it is found convenient
to have braids always formed at the same point, and the ring can steady the
 Braids and Braiding—Brunnschweiler P683
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Fig. 11

braid which is otherwise liable to be pulled about by small variations in

thread tension.
The same object is achieved by forming the braid on a smooth, tapering
ot
rod of greater initial diameter than the final braid (Fig. 12b) causing j
to be temporarily increased with the consequential formation of the braid
nearer the carriers. Another method of braid withdrawal, similar in effect
to the ring method, is occasionally used (see Fig. 12c).

Point of Flat Braid Formation

Unlike the case of tubular braid, it is seldom possible to allow flat
braid to form freely without the aid of some kind of former. In manufactur-
ing a tubular braid, the tension of the strands moving in a clockwise direction
 Proceedings

Cross-Sections Through Braid Axes

Yarn Leaving Bobbins

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Minimum Yarn Maximum Yarn

Tension Tensions (0
Fig. 12
is expected to be exactly balanced by the tension of the equal number of
strands moving in an anti-clockwise direction, and thus the braiding point
is centrally maintained ; but when making a flat braid, due to the braid
shape and the interrupted carrier path circle, such balance is not possible
and the braiding point must be supported by a former, usually U-shaped in
plan.
In addition to the former, selvedge bars (see, e.g.,^^) are frequently
necessary to make a uniform braid edge. The need for these bars arises
because of the radial pull from the circularly arranged carriers on the flat
braid, causing sudden changes in the direction of the pull of the strands at
the braid edge when selvedge bars are not employed.

Yam Let-off
Unless exceptionally high tensions are required such as in the braiding
of relatively inflexible strands, e.g., wire, it is usual to mount the packages
of yarn on vertical carrier spindles, and to cause them to be rotated by the
yarn tension when required to deliver yarn. It would seldom be possible
to permit over-end yarn withdrawal from packages because of the flat,
untwisted tape form in which the strands must be presented to the braiding,
pomt.
 Braids and Braiding—Brunnschweiler

Owing to the position of the thread withdrawal eye on carriers, there are
difficulties connected with the let-off of yarn from a braider bobbin or
cheese which are not present to the same extent when releasing yarn from
these packages on other machines. In order to accommodate a large quantity
of yarn on a carrier, its bobbin is so filled that the outermost layers of
yarn are very close to the withdrawal eye. When the coil of yarn about
to be unwound is at the same level as the eye, a minimum yarn tension will
be needed to provide the torque to rotate the bobbin (Fig. 12d), but when the
coil to be unwound is situated near one of the flanges, a maximum yarn ten-
sion will be needed to provide the same torque component (Fig. 12e). Thus a
continuously changing yarn tension is necessary to turn the bobbin.
For a given bobbin diameter, any increase in the distance between the
bobbin flanges will increase the maximum yarn tension required to produce a
given torque (Fig. 12f). The diagrams of Fig. 12 assume that no slippage of
coils towards the withdrawal eye occurs—normally a false assumption. The
amount of slippage will depend chiefly upon the frictional characteristics
of the yarn. In the case of braider bobbins, therefore, bobbin size cannot
be increased indefinitely, but must depend upon yarn strength.
REFERENCES
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General References in Non-Technical Literature

1 Anon., Chambers Encyclopaedia, London, 1950.
2 Anon., Enciclopedia Italiana^ Milan, 1929.
3 Anon., Encyclopaedia Americana, Chicago, 1949.
* Anon., Encyclopaedia Britannica, article 'Braid,' Vol. 3, Chicago, 1945.
5 Anon., Der Grosse Brockhaus, article 'Flechten,' Leipzig, 1930.
6 Anon., Schweizer Lexikon, article 'Flechten,' Zurich, 1946.
7 Anon., Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 'Braid' 6.c, Oxford, 1933.
8 R. D'Harcourt. 'Les Textiles Anciens du Perou et Leurs Techniques,* Paris, 1934.
5W. H. Holmes. 'Textile Fabrics of Ancient Peru,' Washington, 1889.
10 O. T. Mason. T h e Origins of Invention,' London, 1895.
11 Idem. 'Directions for Collectors of American Basketry,* Washington, 1902.
^2 Idem. 'Aboriginal American Basketry,' Washington, 1904.
13 J. A. H. Murray. English Dictionary, 'Braid,' Oxford, 1888.
i-^E. Vogt. 'Geflechte u. Gewebe der Steinzeit,' 1937.
15 C. Waterton. "Wanderings in S. America" (see Cassawa Press), London, 1879.
General References in Technical Literature
16 Anon., Eibres, 1945, 6, 154.
17 Anon., Silk & Rayon Rec, 1951, 25, 604.
18 Anon., Text. Mfr., 1946, 72, 636.
19 Anon., Text. Rec, 1946, 64, October, 56.
^^ AiRon., Practical Engineering, 1946, 54, 174.
21 Anon., Working Party Report—Lace, p.8O, H . M . S . O . , 1947.
22 A. Barlow. 'History & Principles of W e a v i n g , ' L o n d o n , 1879.
23 Idem, ibid., p.4O4.
24 W. H . Dooley. 'Textiles,' Boston, 1943, 430.
^5 Idem, ibid., pAll.
26 H. Glafey {ed.), 'Textil-Lexikon,' Stuttgart, 1937.
27 R. O. Herzog {ed.), 'Technologie der Textilfasern' Band II, 3, Berlin, 1927. Articles :—
W. Krumme, Maschinen Flechten u. Maschinen Kloeppeln, H . Glafey, Die
Gegenwaertig Gebrauchlichsten Arten von Flecht—u. Kloeppelmaschinen.
28 A. E. Hirst. Text. Industr., 1947, 111, N o . 1, 6 1 .
29 O. Johannsen {ed.) 'Die Geschichte der Textil Industrie,' Leipzig, 1932.
30 W. Krumme, W. (see 27) 313.
31 Idem, ibid., 324.
32 Idem, ibid., fig. 9.
33 Idem, ibid., 342 et seq.
34 L. J. Mills {ed.) 'Textile E d u c a t o r , ; L o n d o n , 1927.
35 W. S. M u r p h y {ed.) ' T h e Textile Industries,* L o n d o n , 1910.
36 A. T h o m p s o n a n d S. Bick. Brit. Ray. & Silk J., 1950, 26, J a n u a r y 54.
^T Idem, ibid., 1952, 28, April, 66.
38 G. Wightman. Text. Merc, 1947, 116, 948.
39 J. Yayes. Textrinium A n t i q u o n i m , ' Part I, London 1843, 4.
 P686 Proceedings
Standard Specifications and Definitions
40 A.S.T.M., Desig., D123-49.
41 Callawav Textile Dictionary, La Grange, Georgia, 1947.
42 Textile Terms and Definitions, J. Text. Inst. 1952, 43, SI.
References to Braiding Machinery in Patent Literature
43 T. Walford. B.P. 638. 1748.
44 J. Heathcoat. B.P. 4267. 1823.
45 J. Head. B.P. 5029. 1824.
46 R. w . Sievier. B.P. 6193. 1831.
47 C. Nickels. B.P. 7621. 1838.
48 H. A. Taylor. B.P. 8516. 1840.
49 G. Davies. B.P. 945. 1866.
50 w . R. Lake. B.P. 3288. 1882.
51 H. H. Lake. B.P. 17, 105. 1886.
^2 Idem. B.P. 14,373. 1891.
53 G. C. Dymond. B.P. 19,034. 1897.
54 T. K. Ober, E. M. Cooper and H. D. Beaston. B.P. 11,681. 1899.
55 E. L. Thorpe. B.P. 13,560. 1901.
56 A. V. Groupe. B.P. 15,608. 1901.
57 J. Lundgren. B.P. 6646. 1902.
58 B. Kirsch and A. Pessl. B.P. 12,953. 1902.
59 J. p. Swift and A. Sutcliffe. B.P. 5589. 1904.
60 H. H. Lake. B.P. 6015. 1904.
61 G. C. Dymond. B.P. 17,981. 1904.
62 E. Rankin and G. Spicer. B.P. 6108. 1906.
63 J. w . Mackenzie. B.P. 25,981. 1906.
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64 E. F. Parkes and S. W. Wardwell. B.P. 3153-6. 1907.

65 M. Banyai and J. F. Low & Co., Ltd. B.P. 523,063. 1939.
Current Catalogues and Handbooks of Braiding Machine Makers Consulted
66 B. & F. Carter & Co. Ltd., Bolton.
67 Crowther Ltd., Leicester.
68 Fidelity Machine Co., Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A.
69 Hobourn Aero Components Ltd., Rochester.
70 p. Hodges & Co. Ltd., Nottingham (Standard Braiders).
71 J. B. Hyde & Co. Ltd., Manchester.
7 2 Larmuth &. Bulmer Ltd., Salford.
73 Mossberg Pressed Steel Corporation, Attelbro, Mass., U.S.A. (Carrier Catalogue).
74iNew England Butt Co., Providence, R.I., U.S.A.
"f^Idem, Catalogue 44, p.27.
76jTextile Machine Works, Reading, Pa., U.S.A.
77 Wardwell Braiding Machine Co., Central Falls, R.I., U.S.A.

College of Technology,
Manchester^University.