Module 2 Overview

Topic:
The Brain and Behavior
Learning Objectives:
1. Discuss the basics of brain imaging
2. Diagram the structure of a neuron.
3. Describe how neurons communicate.
4. Recognize the major divisions of the nervous system and key structures of the brain.
5. Differentiate their functions and associate key structures with physical and
psychological functioning
6. Describe the divisions and functions of the autonomic and somatic nervous systems.
To Do:
7. Neuron Labeling Activity
8. Brain Structure and Function Scenarios
9. League of Denial Discussion
10. Parasympathetic or Sympathetic Activity
11. Module 2 Quiz

Introduction
https://youtu.be/q3OITaAZLNc

Neuron Structure

1. Dendrite 2. Nucleus 3. Some 4. Node of Ranvier 5. Myelin Sheath 6. Axon

http://forms.doane.edu/doanex/PSYC%20117/Neuron%20Structure%20-%20Storyline
%20output/story_html5.html
Neuron Communication
https://youtu.be/se-X-CKsmoE

 Some neurons have axons that are coated in myelin which helps the nerve impulses
move faster. So instead of passing down the entire length of the axon, the action
potential leaps from gap to gaps in a process called saltatory conduction. If we did
not have the added speed of saltatory action potentials it would be nearly impossible
to break quickly enough to avoid an auto accident.
Neurotransmitters
 How does information move from one neuron to another? This communication is
chemical. The microscopic space between the neurons is called the synapse. When
the action potential reaches the end of the axon terminals, neurotransmitters are
released in the synaptic gap. The neurotransmitters are chemicals that alter activity
in neurons. These chemicals attach to the receptor sites on the cell member.
Neurotransmitters do not always trigger action potential in the next neuron. Some
will move the next neuron closer to firing while others will make it less likely to fire.
 There are more than 100 neurotransmitters in the brain.
https://poweronpoweroff.com/blogs/guide/what-are-the-main-neurotransmitters

Neural Networks
 Let’s look at the simplest neural network called a reflex arc. A reflex arc occurs when
a stimulus provokes an automatic response. This reflex arc is set in motion by a
stimulus to the skin or other parts of the body. When this happens, the sensory
neuron in the spinal cord synapses with a connector neuron, the connector neuron
activates a motor neuron that activates the effector cells causing the muscle cells to
contract and your foot to withdraw. These reflexes free our brains up to deal with
more important information.
 Neural networks perform much more complex calculations. At any one time, a
single neuron could be receiving several messages. So when does it fire an impulse?
If there are enough exciting messages arriving close together the neuron will reach
its threshold and fire but if it receives too many inhibiting messages it will be pushed
away from its trigger point. Exciting and inhibiting messages are combined before a
neuron fires its all or nothing action potential.
Neuroplasticity & Neurogenesis
 Neuroplasticity refers to how the brain changes in response to experiences. Synaptic
connections may grow stronger and new ones may form. Every new experience you
have leads to changes in your brain. Although adult brains are less neuroplastic they
can still be changed.
 Even though we lose brain cells daily, the brain is also growing new cells to replace
them through a process called neurogenesis. Each day new cells originate deep in
the brain and move to the surface to link up with other neurons and become part of
the brain’s circuitry. Most likely these cells are involved in learning, memory, and
our ability to adapt to changing circumstances.
Mapping Brain Structure
 Biopsychology is the study of how biological processes relate to behavior.
Biopsychologist try to learn what parts of the brain control what functions. In order
to do this, they use brain mapping.
 The two primary methods for mapping live brain structures in CT scan and MRI scan.
A CT scan or computed tomographic scan is a specialized x-ray of the brain. The x-
rays are taken from several different angles and form into an image of the brain. The
CT scan can reveal brain structure as well as the location of strokes, injuries, tumors,
and other brain disorders.
 MRI or magnetic resonance imaging uses a strong magnetic field to produce an
image of the interior of the body. A person is placed inside a magnetic field during
an MRI. The computer processes a three dimensional model of the brain. MRI scans
produce a more detailed image than a CT scan.
Mapping Brain Function
Transcription of the video: Localization of function is the research strategy of linking specific
structures in the brain with specific psychological and behavioral functions.
How do researchers identify what different parts of the brain do?
One way is through electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB).
Part of the brain can be turned on by stimulating it with an electrical current delivered through
an electrode.
This can be done during brain surgery so that the patient can describe the effect of the
stimulation.
You make be wondering how brain surgery can be done while the patient is awake.
Well, the brain has no pain receptors so surgery can be done with just local painkillers for
the scalp and skull.
Ablation is the surgical removal of parts of the brain.
When removing parts of the brain causes changes in behavior or sensory capacity researchers
are able to learn more about the missing part of the brain.
Deep lesioning is when an electrode is placed into a target area inside of the brain and
a strong electrical current is used to destroy the brain tissue.
Again, researchers can look for changes in behavior to learn about the functions of the
affected area.
There are also techniques that allow us to see activities of the brain without doing
damage to the brain.
These include EEG, PET scan, and fMRI.
Electroencephalography (EEG) measures the waves of electrical activities produced near
the surface of the brain.
During an EEG, small electrodes are placed on a person’s scalp.
The electrical impulses from the brain are detected and sent to the EEG.
The EEG amplifies the brain waves and records them on a moving piece of paper.
Different brain wave patterns can identify the presence of tumors, epilepsy as well as
other diseases.
The EEG can also show changes in brain activity during sleep, day-dreaming, or hypnosis.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) provides more detailed images of brain activity near
and below the surface of the brain.
A PET scan detects positrons emitted by weakly radioactive glucose as it is consumed by the
brain.
Since the brain runs on glucose, a PET scan will show which areas are using more energy.
Higher energy usage is related to higher activity.
By using positron detectors around the head and sending data to a computer it will create
a moving, colored picture of changes in brain activity.
A functional MRI uses MRI technology to make brain activity visible.
fMRI provides images of activity throughout the brain like the PET scan.

Introduction
 The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the brain and is made up of grey matter
that is folded and wrinkled. In humans, this is the largest brain structure. In animals,
this part of the brain is smooth and small. The fact that humans are more intelligent
than animals is related to the size of the cerebral cortex.
 The cortex has two sides known as cerebral hemispheres which are connected by the
corpus callosum, a thick band of axon fibers. The left side of the brain primarily
controls the right side of the body and the left side of the brain primarily controls the
left side of the body. Spatial neglect can be a problem caused by damage to one
hemisphere. Patients with spatial neglect may pay no attention to one side of visual
space.
 95% of people use their left brain for language including speaking, writing, and
understanding. The left side of the brain is also better at math, judging time and
rhythm, and coordinating the order of complete movements. The right hemisphere
on the other hand can only produce the simplest language and numbers. The right
brain is good at perceptual skills like recognizing patterns, putting together a puzzle,
or drawing a picture. It is also helpful in expressing emotions and identifying the
emotions of other people.
 In general terms, the left hemisphere is involved with analysis or breaking down
information into parts and processing the information in sequential order. The right
hemisphere processes information all at once or holistically and simultaneously.
Phineas Gage
https://youtu.be/aw0zbyQVCEc

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

 There are four lobes of the cerebral cortex. The frontal lobe is associated with
higher mental abilities, movement, and sense of self. The frontal lobe contains the
motor cortex which is involved in planning and coordinating movement. The
prefrontal cortex is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning. Broca’s area is
essential for language production.
 The parietal lobe is located behind the frontal lobe and is responsible for processing
information from the body’s senses. The parietal lobe contains the somatosensory
cortex and is used to process sensory information across the body including touch,
temperature, and pain.
 The temporal lobe is located on the side of the head and is associated with hearing,
memory, emotion, and some aspects of language. The auditory cortex is responsible
for processing auditory information. The Wernicke’s area is also located in the
temporal lobe and used for speech comprehension.
 The occipital lobe is located at the back of the brain and contains the primary visual
cortex. It is responsible for interpreting incoming visual information.
Subcortex
 The subcortex of the brain is immediately below the cerebral hemispheres. It can be
divided into the brainstem or hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain.
 Let’s start with the hindbrain which is located at the back of the head and looks like
an extension of the spinal cord. It consists of the medulla, pons, and cerebellum.
The medulla controls the automatic processes of the autonomic nervous system
including breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate. The pons connects the brain
and the spinal cord and is responsible for regulating brain activity during sleep. The
cerebellum primarily regulates posture, muscle tone, and muscular coordination. It
also stores memories related to habits.
 The midbrain is the link between the forebrain and the brainstem.
 The forebrain is made up of the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus
relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex. The hypothalamus is a small area
of the brain that regulates emotional behaviors and motives. It can be viewed as the
master control center for emotion. It is a crossroads that connects many areas of
the brain.
 The limbic system is a system in the forebrain that is closely linked to emotional
responses. The amygdala is part of the limbic system and is associated with fear
responses. The hippocampus is another part of the limbic system and is associated
with the storing of memories.
Endocrine System
The endocrine system is made up of glands that secrete chemicals directly into the
bloodstream or lymph system. The chemicals are called hormones and are carried
throughout the body.
Brain Structure & Function Scenarios
To better understand the influence various brain structures have on daily activities, read the
following five scenarios, and select the brain structure which is most likely to have been involved.

A League of Denial Discussion

Watch the following video and then respond to the questions below
https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/film/league-of-denial/

 What exactly happens to the brain during a concussion? How is it different from a sub-
concussive hit?
 Do you think the benefits of playing football outweigh the risks?
 In recent years the NFL has instituted a number of rules aimed to reduce the amount of
head trauma experienced by players. Do you think these rules are effective? Several players
have commented that these rules are “ruining the game.” What do you think?
 How much responsibility for damage stemming from head trauma should rest on the NFL
players, who knew they were putting their bodies at risk? How much should the NFL be held
responsible for?
 Imagine your child wants to play football. How do you make the decision about whether or
not to allow them to play?

Parasympathetic Nervous System

https://youtu.be/ADnWvmOlBZk

Sympathetic Nervous System

https://youtu.be/FNHRSXe5do8

Parasympathetic or Sympathetic Activity

As you know, the autonomic nervous system can be divided into two major parts. The sympathetic
nervous system serves as an emergency system, activating the body for action in times of danger or
distress. The parasympathetic nervous system quiets the body and returns the body to a lower level
of arousal. Both branches are always active, and their combined activity determines if the body is
more or less aroused.

For the following pairs of body functions, indicate which function is primarily controlled by the
sympathetic branch of the body and which is primarily controlled by parasympathetic behavior.