Lecture 2:

Axially Loaded Tension

Members

CE 2212
Principles of Steel Design

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 Tension Members
are structural elements that are subjected to AXIAL TENSILE
FORCES.

Tension members are found in:

Truss members for Bridges Truss members for Roofs

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 Towers / Transmission Towers Bracing Systems
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 Tension Rods / Cables in
Suspended Roof Systems

Cables in Suspension Bridges

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 Cables in Cable-Stayed Bridges

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 Tension Member Design

The selection of a section to be used as a tension member is one of

the simplest problems encountered in design. As there is no danger
of the member buckling.
Any cross-sectional configuration may be used, because for any
given material, the only determinant of the strength of a tension is
the CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA.
Circular rods and rolled angle shapes are used.
Built-up shapes, either from plates, rolled shapes, or a combination
of plates and rolled shapes, are sometimes used when large loads
must be resisted.

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 ADDITIONAL NOTES:

Tables of properties of various

combinations of angles are included in
the AISC STEEL CONSTRUCTION
MANUAL.

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 Tensile Stress
The stress in an axially loaded tension member is given by:

where:
P = magnitude of the load
A = cross-sectional area
(the area normal to the load)

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 Design Requirement:
The design of a structural member entails the selection of a cross
section that are:
1. Safe
2. Economical (Economy usually means minimum weight - that
is, the minimum amount of steel)
The fundamental requirement of structural design is that the
required strength not exceed the available strength.

Required strength ≤ Allowable strength

Where:
allowable strength = (nominal strength) FS
FS = factor of safety ( less than 1)
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 Tension Member Failure
A tension member can fail by reaching one of two limit states:
1. Excessive Deformation or “Necking”
2. Fracture
Ductile Failure:
(a) Necking
(b) Cavity Formation
(c) Cavity coalescence
to form a crack
(d) Crack Propagation
(e) Fracture

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 Excessive Deformation or “Necking”
To prevent excessive deformation, initiated by yielding, the load
on the gross section must be small enough that the stress on the
gross section is less than 60% of the yield stress Fy.
Fy = 36 ksi (248 MPa) for A36

Note:
> Ag = Gross Area
Allowable Required

Tensile Yielding

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 Fracture
To prevent fracture, the stress on the net section must be less than 50%
of the ultimate strength Fu.

Fu = 58 ksi (400 MPa) for A36

Note:
> Ae = Effective Net Area
Allowable Required

Tensile Rupture

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 Effective Net Area, Ae

where:
Ae = Effective Net Area
An = Net Area = (Ag – Area of bolt holes)
U = Reduction Coefficient due to shear lag or
Shear Lag Factor

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 Problem:
A 12mm × 125mm plate of A36 steel is used as a tension member. It
is connected to a gusset plate with four Ø16mm bolts as shown in
figure below. Assume that the effective net area Ae equals the net
area An (U=1) and the holes are punched.
What is the allowable strength for ASD?

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 Bolt Holes Allowances

For Drilled Holes:

provide 1/32 in. allowance per side
bolt + 2(0.80mm)
Used for Drilled Holes

For Punched Holes:

provide 1/16 in. allowance per side
bolt + 2(1.60mm)
Used for Punched Holes
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 Solution:

For Fracture:

An = Ag − Area of holes
= (12*125mm) − 12mm[(1.60)(2)+16mm] × 2 holes
= 1,500 – 460.8 = 1,039 mm2
Ae = An = 1,039 mm2
(This is true for this example, but Ae does not always equal An.)

P = Ft * Ae = 0.50 (400 MPa) * 1,039 mm2 / 1000 = 207.8 KN

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 For Yielding:

P = Ft * Ag = 0.60 (248 MPa) * 1,500 mm2 / 1000 = 223.2 KN

For Fracture - 207.8 KN

For Yielding - 223.2 KN

P = 207.8 KN (Smaller Value)

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 Effective Area

A connection almost always weakens the member, and the

measure of its influence is called the joint efficiency.

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 Shear Lag
The non-uniform stress distribution that occurs in a tension member
adjacent to a connection, in which all elements of the cross section are
not directly connected, is commonly referred to as the shear
lag effect.

Shear lag occurs when some elements of the cross section are not
connected, as when only one leg of an angle is bolted to a gusset.

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 The consequence of this partial connection is that the connected
element becomes over - loaded and the unconnected part is not fully
stressed. Lengthening the connected region will reduce this effect.

Shear lag can be accounted for by using a reduced, or effective, net

area.
Used in the ff. connections:

1. Bolted

2. Welded

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 NOTES:

 When the load is transmitted directly to each of the cross

– sectional elements by connectors, the effective net area
Ae = An
 When the load is transmitted by bolts or rivets through
some but not all of the cross – sectional elements of the
member, Ae = UAn
 When the load is transmitted by welds through some but
not all of the cross – sectional elements of the member,
Ae = UAg

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 From NSCP 2015: Shear Lag Factors (U)

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 “U” TO BE USED:
 W, M, S shapes with flange width of less than 2/3 the depth
and structural tees cut from these shapes, provided the
connection in to the flanges. Bolted and riveted connections
shall have no fewer than 3 fasteners per line in the direction of
the stress. [U = 0.90]
2d/3 ≤ bf

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 “U” TO BE USED:
 W, M, S not meeting conditions of #1 and also including built
– up sections. Bolted or riveted connections shall have no
fewer than 3 fasteners per line in the direction of stress. [U =
0.85]
2d/3 > bf

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 “U” TO BE USED:
 W, M, S shapes Connected through the web with four or more
fasteners in the direction of loading [U = 0.70]

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 “U” TO BE USED:
 For single angle with four or more fasteners in the direction of
loading, U = 0.80
 For single angle with two or three fasteners in the direction of
loading, U = 0.60

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 “U” TO BE USED:
 All members with bolted or riveted connections having only 2
fasteners per line in the direction of stress [U = 0.75]
 When load is transmitted by transverse weld to some but not
all of the cross – sectional elements of W, M, S and structural
tees area used shall be the area directly connected.

NOTE:
AISC D3.3 mandates that for shapes such as angles, double
angles, and WT shapes, the value of U should not be less
than 0.60.

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 Staggered Fasteners
If a tension member connection is made with bolts, the net area
will be maximized if the fasteners are placed in a single line.
Sometimes space limitations, a necessitate using more than one
line. If so, the reduction in cross-sectional area is minimized if
the fasteners are arranged in a staggered pattern, as shown.

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 COCHRANE (1922)

d’ =d− s2/4g

Where:
d = hole diameter
s = stagger or pitch of the bolts
g = gage

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 AISC SPECIFICATION - D3

wn = wg −∑d ′
= w −∑(d −s2/4g)
= wg −∑d + ∑s2/4g

Where:
Wn = net width
Wg = gross width

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 For plates

Ag = t x d

An = Ag - ∑ (Area of holes ) + t ∑ (s2/4g)

= t x d - ∑ (Area of holes ) + t ∑ (s2/4g)
∑ (Area of holes ) along the tearing line

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 Problem:
Compute the smallest net area for the plate shown. The holes
are for 1-inch-diameter bolts.

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 Solution:
The deff is 1 + 1/8 = 1 1/8 in.

For line abde,

wn = 16 – 2(1.125) = 13.75 in.

For line abcde,

wn = 16 − 3(1.125) + 2(32)/4(5) = 13.52 in.

The second condition will give the smallest net area:

An = (t)(wn) = 0.75(13.52) = 10.1 in.2

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 Problem:
Determine the tensile capacity of an angle 4 x 2 x ¼ if the rivet
holes arranged as shown:
Fy = 36 ksi
Fv = 58 ksi
u = 0.85

Gage Distances from AISC

For 4”leg = 2 ½”
For 2”leg = 1 1/8”

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 Solution:
At gross section
Ft = 0.6(36) = 21.6 ksi
Ag 4 x 2 = (4 + 2 – ¼) (1/4) = 1.44 in2
Ft = P/A
21.6 = P/1.44
P = 31.05 kips

At effective section
u = 0.85
Fu = 58 ksi

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 a

b
d

c e

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 At ABC
Anet = 1.44 – (1/4) (3/4 + 1/8) = 1.22 in2
Ae = uAn = 0.85(1.22) = 1.04 in2
0.5(58) = P /1.04
P = 30.16 kips

At ABDE
g = g1 + g2 - t = 2 ½ + 1 1/8 – ¼ = 3.375 in
s = 3 in
Anet = 1.44 – (1/4) (3/4 + 1/8) (2) + (1/4) = 1.67 in2
3.375
Ae = 0.85(1.67) = 1.45 in2
ABDE is not a possible tearing line since S(S2/4g) > Area of Hole
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 Problem:
Determine the net area of the wide flange below

W 12 x 16 , Ag = 4.71 in2 , tw = 0.22” , tf = 0.265”

g’ = g/2 - tw

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 ABCD
Anet = 4.71 – (7/8) (4)(0.265) = 3.78 in2
ABECD
Anet = 4.71 – (7/8) (4) (0.265) – (7/8) (1) (0.22)
+ (0.22)(22) + (0.265)(22)
(4)(5.89) (4)(8.89)
Anet = 3.66 in2
ABEGH
Anet = 4.71 – (7/8) (2) (0.265) – (7/8) (2) (0.22)
+ (0.22)(22) + (0.22)(22)
(4)(5.89) (4)(3)
Anet = 3.97 in2
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 Slenderness Ratio
According to AISC, there is no maximum slenderness limit for
design of members in tension.
Even though stability is not a criterion in the design of tension
members, it is still preferable to limit their length in order to prevent a
member from becoming too flexible both during erection and final use
of the structure.
Two main factors controlling slenderness ratio in tension members are:
1. Tension members that are too long may sag excessively due to their
own weight.
2. They may vibrate when subjected to wind forces as in an open truss
or when supporting vibrating equipment such as fans or
compressors.
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 For members, whose design is based on tensile force, the
slenderness ratio L/r preferably should not exceed 300 where L is the
actual and not the effective length.

Or refer to AISC Steel Manual for the value of

radius of gyration (r) of standard sections. Use
smallest value of r.
K= Effective length factor (usually assumed to be 1.0 for tension
members) .
L = Unbraced length of the tension member
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 Tension Members in Roof Trusses

Select a structural tee for the bottom chord of the Warren roof truss
shown in Figure 3.34. The trusses are welded and spaced at 20 feet.
Assume that the bottom chord connection is made with 9-inch-long
longitudinal welds at the flange. Use A992 steel and the following
load data (wind is not considered in this example):

Purlins: M8 X 6.5
Snow: 20 psf of horizontal projection
Metal deck: 2 psf
Roofing: 4 psf
Insulation: 3 psf

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 Calculate loads:

Snow = 20(40)(20) = 16,000 lb

Dead load (exclusive of purlins) = Deck 2 psf
Roof 4 psf
Insulation 3 psf
Total = 9 psf
Total dead load = 9(40)(20) = 7200 lb
Total purlin weight = 6.5(20)(9) = 1170 lb

Estimate the truss weight as 10% of the other loads:

0.10(16,000 + 7200 + 1170) = 2437 lb

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 Loads at an interior joint:

D = 7200/8 + 2437/8 + 6.5(20) = 1335 lb

S = 16,000/8 = 2000 lb

At an exterior joint, the tributary roof area is half of that at

an interior joint. The corresponding loads are:

D = 7200 + 2437 + 6.5(20) = 732.3 lb 2(8) 2(8)

S = 16,000 = 1000 lb

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 Load combination 3 will control.
At an interior joint,
Pa = D + S = 1.335 + 2.0 = 3.335 kips

At an exterior joint,
Pa = 0.7323 + 1.0 = 1.732 kips

The loaded truss is shown.

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 Member IJ is the bottom chord member with the largest force.

∑ME =13.40(20) − 1.732(20) − 3.335(15 + 10 + 5) − 4FIJ =0

FIJ =33.33kips

For the gross section, Ft = 0.6Fy = 0.6(36) = 21.6 ksi

Required Ag = FIJ/Ft = 33.33/21.6 = 1.54 in.2

For the net section, Ft = 0.5Fu = 0.5(58) = 29.0 ksi

Required Ae = FIJ /Ft
= 33.33/29.0
= 1.15 in.2

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 Try an MT6 × 5.4
Ag = 1.58 in.2 > 1.54 in.2 (OK)
U = 1−x/l
= 1− 1.86/9
= 0.7933

Ae = AgU = 1.58(0.7933)
= 1.25 in.2 > 1.15 in.2 (OK)

Assuming that the bottom chord is braced at the panel points:

L/r = 5(12)/0.566 = 106 < 300 (OK)
Use an MT6 × 5.4 Ans.
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 End of Lecture 2

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