Sociological Foundations of Physical Education and Sport

1) How is sport a socializing force in American culture?

2) What is the nature and scope of sport?
3) What are some problems that we see today in sports and how are they addressed?

Sociology

Study of people, groups, institutions, human activities in terms of social behavior, and social order
within society. Concerned about institutions in society such as religion, family, government, education, and
leisure.

Influence of social institutions on the individual, the social behavior and human relations that occur
within a group or an institution, and how they influence the individual, and the interrelationship between
various institutions within society, such as sport, education, religion, and government.

Examination of the relationship between sport and society.

Goals of Sports Sociology

1) Factors underlying the creation and the organization of sports.

2) Relationship between sport and other aspects of society such as family, education, and the
media.
3) Influence of sport and sport participation on individuals’ beliefs relative to equity, gender,
race, ethnicity, disability, and other societal issues.
4) The social dynamics within the sport setting, i.e., organizational structure, group actions,
and interaction patterns.
5) The influence of cultural, structural, and situational factors on the nature of sport and the
sport experience.
6) The social processes associated with sport, including competition, socialization, conflict, and
change

What does a sport sociologist do?

1) Studies the behavior of individuals and groups within the sport milieu.
2) Influence of social relationships, past social experiences, and the social setting of sport
activities on the behavior of groups and individuals in sport

Sport Sociology Questions

1) Does sport build character?

2) Does sport help minorities become more fully integrated into society?
3) How do the mass media affect sport?
4) How does youth sport influence children’s lives?
5) How are politics and sports interrelated?
6) How does sport influence athletes’ academic achievements?
Sport
 “Sports are institutionalized competitive activities that involve rigorous physical exertion or the use
of relatively complex physical skills by participants motivated by personal enjoyment and external
rewards.” -Coakley

Characteristic of Sports

1) What kind of activities can be classified as sport?

2) Under what circumstances can participation in activities be considered sport?

3)What characterizes the involvement of participants in sport?

What does sport does to people...

1) Emotional release

2)Affirmation of identity

3)Social control

4)Socialization

5)Agent for change

6)Collective conscious

7)Success

Sport in the Educational Institutions

1) Rapid period of growth starting with the first collegiate athletic event in 1852, a crew race between
Harvard and Yale.

2) Introduction and growth of sports at collegiate and interscholastic levels.

3) Concerns voiced about the educational value of sports. What’s more important: the academics or
the athletics?

Interscholastic Sports

1) Sports contribution to educational goals.

2) Arguments for and against interscholastic sports.

3) Concerns
 a) Overemphasis on Winning

b) Pressure to specialize in one sport and win instead of participating in many.

c) Restriction of Opportunities for Students

d) Only limited number of students can participate due to limited resources.

Eligibility Requirements: Are there any academic standards?

1) Concerns

1) Drug Abuse

Use of performance-enhancing drugs mainly anabolic steriods, and creatine.

2) Soaring Costs

“Pay to Play”: those that have the money can afford to play, but others lose out if
required to pay.

3) Quality of the Leadership

Educational goals go unmet in instances of verbal abuse and control of the athletes’ lives
by the coach.

Do coaches have to be certified?

Moral and Spiritual Values as Foundations of a Strong Society

The New Society as envisioned by President Ferdinand Marcos gives focus to individual worth or
respect for the personality of the individual. Below are ten values that are moral and spiritual in
character and that represent the foundations of a strong society.

Human Personality - a basic value

The individual has worth. This represents the basic value in life. Physical Education should help the
individual to possess a feeling of worth and importance and to achieve within his abilities.

Moral responsibility

Each individual must feel responsible for his own behavior. Human beings must exercise rational
judgment in making decisions that will not infringe upon the rights of others. They must perform in a
manner that is ethical and right according to established codes of conduct. Physical education must use
its power to inculcate this responsibility in those individuals who participate in its programs.

Institutions as Servants of Man

Social institutions, whether they are domestic, educational, cultural, or political, must serve people.
They should never exist for themselves but, instead, as agencies that help people to realize their goals.
 Common Consent

The popular will be the key to understanding. Cooperation must exist. Law, justice and
conformance with existing, rules and regulations must be a guide line.

Devotion to the Truth

The truth must always be sought and social directions guided thereby. Deception, coercion, and
intellectual dishonesty must not exist. Schools and physical educators within the schools must help
young people to determine the way to find the truth and how to be guided by its revelation.

Respect for Excellence

There should be a constant search excellence of mind, character, and creative ability. Education
should help young people to determine their abilities, to select leaders who are most able, and to be
excellent producers themselves in all their efforts. Physical Education can help people tom achieve this
important quality by stressing the importance of well-being and good health.

Moral Equality

All individuals are judged by the same moral standards. The golden rule has been written into all
the great religions of the world. Education and physical education must recognize this precept and
practice rules of fair play, tolerance, sympathy, and brotherhood.

Brotherhood

There must be a feeling of brotherhood for all persons, whether these individuals are ignorant or
bright, feeble or strong, experience misfortune or abound in good fortune. This is a moral
responsibility of all citizens. Education and physical education must help young people to develop those
traits and qualities that will enhance their usefulness to society.

Pursuits of Happiness

Opportunity must be provided for each individual to pursue and achieve happiness. Education and
Physical Education must promote those qualities that provide lasting happiness - deep personal
resources, respect and affection for others, and opportunities for making a contribution to humanity.

Spiritual Enrichment

The outlook of people is affected by spiritual belief. Their inner feelings and emotions are tempered
by this same belief. Their behavior is also guided by this quality. Education and Physical Education
should encourage and help individuals to have spiritual enrichment, in which beauty and refinement,
aesthetic appreciation, and creative abilities represent important considerations.

1. Surplus Energy       (Schiller 1873    Spencer 1875)

Play is the result of surplus energy that exists because the young are freed from the business of
self-preservation through the activities of their parents.  Energy finds its release in the aimless exuberant
activities of play.

  (Based upon postulates: a quantity of energy is available to the child; there is a tendency to expend
energy thought is not necessary for maintenance of life balance.)
 2. Relaxation Theory    (Lazarus 1883    Patrick 1916)

(Recreation)        Play is seen as a mode of dissipating the inhibitions built up from-fatigue due to

tasks that are relatively new to the organism.  Thus, play is found more often in childhood.  Play
replenishes energy for as yet unfamiliar cognitive activities of the child and reflects deep-rooted race
habits -- phylogenetically acquired behaviors that are not therefore new to the organism.

 (Phylogenetic - functions common to the race Ontogenetic - functions specific to the individual requiring
training)

 3.          Pre-Exercise Theory- (Groos - 1898)

 Play is the necessary practice for behaviors that are essential to later survival. The playful fighting
of animals or the rough and tumble play of children are essentially the practice of skills that will later aid
their survival.

 4.  Recapitulation Theory     (G ' Stanley Hall - 1906    Wundt - 1913)

Play is seen not as an activity that develops future instinctual skills, but rather, that it serves to rid
the organism of primitive and unnecessary instinctual skills carried over by hereditary.  Each child passes
through a series of play stages corresponding to and recapitulating the cultural stages in the development
of the race. (Plays roots are in the ritual of the savage and his need for magic)

5. Growth Theories      (Appleton 1919)

Play Is a response to a generalized drive for growth In the organism.  Play serves to facilitate the
mastery of skills necessary to the function of adult behaviors.

6. Ego Expanding      Theories - (Lange - 1902 Claparde - 1911)

Play is nature's way of completing the ego an expressive exercising of the ego and the rest of the
personality; an exercising that develops cognitive skills and aids in the emergence of additional skills.

  Current Theories of Play

 1.       Infantile Dynamics (Lewin)

Play occurs because the cognitive life space of the child is still unstructured, resulting in failure to
discriminate between real and unreal.  The child passes into a region of playful unreality where things are
changeable and arbitrary.

  (Buytendijk)

The child plays because he is a child and because his cognitive dynamics do not allow for any other
way of behaving.  Play is an expression of the child's uncoordinated approach to the environment.

 2.         Cathartic Theory -         (Freud 1908)

Play represents an attempt to partially satisfy drives or to resolve conflicts when the child really
doesn’t have the means to do so.  When a child works through a drive through play he has at least
temporarily resolved it.

  3.         Psychoanalytic Theory - (Buhler - 1930.  Anna Freud 1937)

 Play represents not merely wish-fulfilling tendencies but also mastery -- an attempt through
repetition to cope with overwhelming anxiety-provoking situations.  Play is defensive as well as adaptive in
dealing with anxiety'.

  4.         Cognitive Theory       (Piaget - 1962)

Play is derived from the child's working out of two fundamental characteristics of his mode of
experience and development.  These are accommodation and assimilation -- the attempts to integrate new
experiences into the relatively limited number of motor and cognitive skills available at each age.

Accommodation- the attempt to imitate and interact physically with the environment.

Assimilation -    the attempt to integrate externally derived precepts or motor actions in a limited amount
of schemata.

Physical Education and the building of Moral Character

Physical education has great potential for building moral character in the children and youth.
However, in order to realize this potential, physical educators should be familiar with the stages of
character development and the best approaches to achieving this worthy goal.

Havighurst and Peack and associates, with colleagues of the committee on Human Development at
the University of Chicago, studied boys and girls, giving them tests, talking with teachers and parents, and
analyzing findings. This study suggests the existence of five stages through which the ordinary person
passes in developing character.

1. Amoral, impulsive stage - This is a period during first year of life or longer when the individual follows his
own impulses and has no moral feelings.

2. Egocentric, expedient stage - This period is common among children 2 to 4 years of age. It is
characterized by some control over impulses in the interest of making good impressions and also self-
protection from physical harm. However, there is still the "I" feeling, with focus on individual attempts to
conform to the demands of the social group of which he is a part.

3. Conforming stage - From 5 to 10 years of age there exists a period where the individual attempts to
conform to the demands of the special group of which he is a part.

4. Irrational conscience stage - This is the period when the example and teaching of parents are dominant,
normal for children 5 to 10 years of age and older. Some adults continue in this stage. This period is
characterized by a strong feeling that the parental code of morality, whether it is right or wrong, is the one
that should be followed in a rigid manner.

5. Rational conscience manner - This is the highest level of moral conduct. The individual applies reason
and experience to his moral code, continually trying to see various avenues of conduct that are open and
consequences of travelling each avenue. A few adolescents get into this stage; some adults are never able
to achieve it.

Intercollegiate Sport

Educational Sport -vs- “Big Business”

Governance

NCAA, NAIA, NJCAA

Pressures to win

Usually result in the abandonment of sportsmanship, character and social development

Academic achievement of “student-athletes”

Graduation rates

Proposition 48 and subsequent rulings

Exploitation of athletes

Athletes can make millions for their school, and only receive a full scholarship in return.

Intercollegiate Athletics

Gambling

$2.5 billion was illegally wagered on the NCAA Div. I Men’s Basketball Championship.

Retention of Coaches

Drug abuse

Pressure to win and the use of performance-enhancing drugs.

Spiraling costs

Media

Had brought to light many illegal recruiting practices.

Intercollegiate Athletics Reform

In1990, athletes’ graduation rates were required to be monitored.

Elimination of athletic dormitories.

Reduction of time allowed in practice/week, and the length of the season. Fix the resemblance to
the professional model of sports or is it too late.
Concerns in Sports Today

1. Discrimination against girls and women.

2. Children’s programs place too much emphasis on winning.
3. Children engaged in highly competitive sport at too early an age.
4. Money spent by “big-time” collegiate sport is excessive.
5. Recruitment of high school athletes is often scandalous.
6. Television threatens to destroy many of sports’ values.
7. Violence in sports is excessive.
8. Public support of professional sport is questionable.

Girls and Women in Sports

Title IX of the Educational Amendment Act 1972

“no person ... shall on the basis of sex, be excluded form participation in, be denied the benefits
of or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving federal
assistance.”

Challenges to Title IX (narrow interpretation)

Grove City College Vs. Bell

1. 1988 Civil Rights Restoration Act (broad)

 Demanded equal opportunity for both sexes in all programs in any organization that
received federal funds.

2. Compliance with Title IX

 Proportionality
 History and continued practice
 Accommodation of interests and abilities

3. Impact of Title IX

 Interscholastic sports
 Intercollegiate sports Increases in number of teams, scholarships offered, and qualified
coaches hired

Physical Activity and Sports in the Lives of Girls

1. Exercise and sport participation ...

contributes to the development of the “complete” girl ...

her social, physical, emotional, and cultural environment -- rather than to one aspect of
the girl’s life.
 a therapeutic and preventive intervention to enhance the physical and mental health.

enhances the mental health of girls through opportunities to develop positive feelings about
their body, improved self-esteem, tangible experiences of competency and success, and
enhanced self-confidence

2. Sports contribute to educational goals.

3. Poverty substantially limits many girls’ access to physical activity and sport.
4. The potential for girls to derive positive experiences from physical activity and sport is limited
by lack of opportunity and stereotypes.

Girls and Women in Sports

Expansion of opportunities for girls and women due to:

1. increased visibility of women athlete role models

2. fitness movement
3. women’s movement
4. legislation

Factors limiting participation

1. financial constraints
2. societal constraints
3. discrimination

Women in the Olympics

1. Women have fewer events and participants than men.

In 1972, U.S. team 342 men and 96 women.

In 1996, U.S. team 382 men and 280 women.

2. 1996 women made up 36.5% of the athletes.

3. IOC slow to approve new events for women even though women are participating in
world competition in these events.

Female Coaches

1. Since passage of Title IX, the number of female coaches has declined.
2. Decline of female intercollegiate coaches
 In 1970, 90% of coaches of female teams were women.
 In 2000, 42.2% of coaches of female teams were women.
3. Reasons for underrepresentation are varied.
 Lack of well qualified women coaches and administrators.
 Lack of visibility of women as role models in these careers.

Media
 1. Trivialization of females’ accomplishments

2. Lack of coverage

3. Reinforcement of traditional stereotypes

Myths

1. Participation leads to complications in childbearing.

2. Women more likely to be insured.

3. Participation threatens one’s femininity.

Minorities in Sport

Racism and prejudice in sport...

Is sport “color blind”?

Integration of sports

1946, Jackie Robinson became the first African-American to play professional baseball for the
Dodgers.

Participation patterns of minorities

Black athletes’ participation concentrated in a few sports.

Underrepresentation of minorities in certain sports and sport administration.

Stacking is the phenomenon where players from certain racial or ethnic groups are disproportionately
represented at certain positions.

A reflection of stereotypical beliefs about racial and ethnic groups?

No consensus as to the causes of stacking.

Other problems:

1. Disparity in treatment by coaches

2. Sacrifice of educational goals for athletic goals
3. Social isolation
4. Prejudiced attitudes held by coaches and teammates

Native Americans

Limited participation by Native Americans in sports.

Factors that serve to limit participation:

  Poverty
 Poor health
 Lack of equipment
 Concern for loss of cultural identity

Use of Native-Americans as mascots is often a reflection of stereotypical beliefs.

Sport for Individuals with Disabilities

Prior to the 1970s, individuals with disabilities had limited opportunities for participation in sport.

Expansion of sports opportunities

Changing societal attitudes

Use of sport for rehabilitation

Federal legislation

Federal legislation

PL 94-142 Education for All Handicapped Children Act

PL 93-112 Section 504 Rehabilitation Act

Amateur Sports Act of 1978 PL 95-606

USOC Committee on Sports for the Disabled

Recognition of amateur sports organizations for the disabled

Paralympics

2000 Paralympic Games in Sydney involved more than 4,000 athletes, competing
in 18 sports for 550 medals.

Sport for Children and Youth

1. Youth sports have grown tremendously.

2. Widespread concern about the nature and outcomes associated with the programs.
3. Benefits associated with participation have long been heralded.
4. Many of the criticisms stem from the overemphasis on winning.
5. National Alliance for Youth Sports (NAYS)
6. Leadership is a critical factor in governing the outcomes associated with youth sports.
7. Need to structure youth sports to include elements that children find enjoyable within their
own games.
8. Training of volunteers
9. Developmental vs Professional model
10. National Alliance for Youth Sports (NAYS)

International Sport: The Olympics

 Olympic ideals are lofty goals due to:

 Olympics used to further political goals by some

 Media coverage
 Nationalism undermining the goal of unity
 Increased commercialization of the Games
 Amateurism vs professionalism

Restructuring of Games to attain goals in the future? How?

Amateur Sport

1. Amateur Athletic Union

2. State Games
3. US Olympic Festival
4. Amateur competitions for adults
 Senior Games
 Master’s competitions

Violence in Sport

1. Overextension of physical and psychological intimidation of opponents.

2. Bench clearing “brawls’ in sports
3. “Enforcers” on some teams
 Individuals on a team charged with protecting their own players by intimidating the
opponents.
4. Violence at the upper levels of sports influences actions of children and youth at lower levels of
sport with the help of the media glamorizing it.
5. Spectator violence and parental violence

Dealing with Violence in Sport

1. No single, simple solution.

2. How violent is too violent? Where do you draw the line?
3. Some type of control must be instituted.
4. Stricter penalties should be imposed at all levels of sport?
5. Playing within the spirit of the game and rules, and respecting opponents will reduce violence?

JOB CHART OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

TEACHER BY DSE VIDE PROC. RC.No. 493/NEP/4-2-87, Dt: 15-06-1988

1. Conduct of Assembly and prayer in the morning.

2. Attending to correspondence work, making of courts, issue of games equipment to games boys
(morning sessions).

1. Taking instructional periods in the time table and wearing proper uniform.
2. Conduct of participation periods, Mass Drill periods, optional periods, special coaching after school
hours.

1. Assisting the Medical Officer in conducting the medical examination.

 3. (a) Maintenance of individual health records

(b) Follow up action

(c) Teaching of health habits

7. Teaching of physical efficiency tests for 8th, 9th, 10th class students during working
hours of the School twice in an academic year.

7. Classification of students and conduct of intra-murals.

7. Preparation of school teams for inter-school competition or tournaments.

10. Maintenance of records and registers (Stock Register, Fundamental Skills Register, Attendance
Register, Stock of Games and Sports Material, Maintenance of individual health records, registers,
files and unserviceable articles register.

11. Stock verification, auction and condemnation of articles.

12. Setting of accounts and submission of vouchers for the year.

13. Conduct of National days and sports day or school day.

14. Safely preservation of games material during vacation.

15. Maintenance of good relationship with students staff and public,

1 6 . He should assist the heads of the institutions in maintaining discipline in the school.

PERIODS

a) Health Education
b) Instructional Period
c) Participation Periods
d) Optional Period
e) Special Coaching after School Hours

a) Health Education Period

Personal Hygiene, Environmental Hygiene, Communicable Diseases, Community Health, Mental

Health, Food fats, Nutrition, Balanced diet, Water, Oxygen, Vitamins. System of the Human Body,
Heredity and environment, First Aid School Health Services, World Health Organization, UNICEF,
CARE, Environmental pollution and Sanitation, Children effected alcohol, misuse of drugs.

b) Instructional Period

All major games: History of the game, measurements, skills and techniques, Mass exercises, Asanas,
Pyramids, Training and Coaching.

c) Participation Period
 What ever you taught in instructional period the same may be given participation.

d) Optional Period

Special Coaching will be given in games or sports. Intramurals

The student will be classified into various "Houses" separately for boys and girls. The House should be
Sub-Divided into Juniors and Sub-Juniors. The Houses should be named with National Leaders and eminent
sports personalities.

The competition among the Houses in various games and Sprots should be conducted through out the
academic year on league basis and the prizes and incentives should be

awarded at the time of school anniversary. The Physical Education Teacher should see that every student
should will get and opportunity in intramurals,

Extramurals

The Physical Education Teacher should observe and select the best players during the intramurals and
make them eligible to participate in the extra-mural competitions.

Coaching

The Physical Education Teacher should conduct the Coaching Camps periodically for various games and
sports.

Classification

Classification in Physical Education is the division of pupils of different age, size, stature and skill into
homogeneous groups.

l-lndex:

11/2height (inches) + Weight (in lbs)

On the basis of this formula the following indices have been adopted in the schools of Madras State.

Group Index

1. Seniors - 200 and above

2. Intermediates - 180 and below 200
3. Juniors - 60 and below 180
4. Sub-Juniors - below 160

ll-lndex:

Age + Height +1/10 Weight

(Age in years, height in inches & weight in lbs)

Group Index
 1. Seniors - 85 and above
2. Intermediates - 80 to 85
3. Juniors - 75 to 80
4. Sub-Juniors - 70 to 75
5. Lower Class - 65 to 70
6. Bottom Class - 65 and below

In considering the age of a pupil for the index, the years and the completed month should be taken into
account. Example

Age = 14 years and 2 months -14.17 (in years)

Height = 5 feet & 1 inch- 61.00 (in inches)

Weight ■ 85 lbs - 8.50 (1/10 wt inlbs)83.67

INDEX

Classification for Girls

Index I = (4 Age + Height + Weight) / 3

Index II = 20 Age + 6 Height + Weight

(Age in completed years, Height in inches and weight in pounds)