Course Module

Petroleum Geology - GEOL 410

Sedimentary Features

GEOL 6022
Module 5

MacPhail School of Energy Revised: July 2006

www.sait.ca
Sedimentary Features

Rationale
Why is it important for you to learn this material?
Sedimentary rocks that have similar appearances may have significantly different
origins. The processes which form sediments and sedimentary rocks leave their
telltale signatures in the rock allowing geologists to identify the conditions under
which the sediments were originally formed. Careful observation and
interpretation of sedimentary features allows assessment and prediction of
reservoir quality, depositional environments and the shape and extent of
sedimentary deposits.

Learning Outcome
When you complete this module you will be able to ….
Interpret the conditions under which sediment formed based on principles of
Uniformitarianism and/or sediment structures.

Learning Objectives
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective.
1. Explain how the "Law of Uniformitarianism" can help to interpret geological
features and processes.

2. Outline how sedimentary structures can be used to interpret depositional

environments.

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 OBJECTIVE ONE
When you complete this objective you will be able to…
Explain how the "Law of Uniformitarianism" can help to interpret geological
features and processes.

Learning Material
UNIFORMITARIANISM

Rocks are the products of many different processes that have operated in the past.
In order to interpret rocks we have to look at processes that operate today, where
we can observe the process in action and its results, and then make the assumption
that similar processes must have operated in the past. This concept is called
Uniformitarianism or the “Law of Uniformitarianism” and is a fundamental
principle in geology. It was first developed by a Scottish doctor turned geologist,
James Hutton (1726-1797). Uniformitarianism was described by Hutton using the
phrase “The Present is the Key to the Past”.

For example, geologists examining an ancient lava flow in the rock record may
make comparisons with a modern lava flow. The ancient and modern examples
may share many characteristics and then by using the Law of Uniformitarianism
geologists can state that volcanoes must have been present in the past and that
lava must have erupted in a similar way to what it does now. One exception to the
rule may be that while the processes are thought to be the same, they may have
operated at different rates in the past. Hutton also surmised that for all the events
he observed in the rock record, the earth must have had a very long history, an
idea that was very contrary to the beliefs at that time about the age of the earth.

Most geologic processes are very slow which presents challenges when we try to
observe them. Humans simply don’t have the luxury of waiting around for two
million years for something to happen. We can however make observations of the
same process that is at different stages in different places on the earth. Many
processes that result in the deposition of sediments are rapid in the geological
sense so they are easily observed. Geologists use a number of other principles, in
addition to Uniformitarianism which applies to all geological processes, to
interpret sediments and sedimentary rocks.

These principles define how sedimentary rocks are formed and are used to
determine the relative ages of the layers.

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Superposition

Sedimentary layers are deposited one on top of another (see Figure 1). In a series
of layers or beds this principle dictates that the oldest bed must be at the base, and
the youngest at the top. Occasionally, sedimentary sequences can be overturned
due to intense mountain-building events, so geologists have to use specific
features in the beds to determine which way is “up”.

Figure 1
Superposition of Younger Layers on Top of Older Ones
©
Created @ SAIT

Original Horizontality

This principle states that layers are deposited horizontally, or almost horizontally
(see Figure 2). If a layer is tilted (or overturned), that is an indication of a later
disturbance of an originally horizontal bed. As we will see in the next objective it
is possible to have inclined layers within beds, called cross-beds, however the
larger bed that contains the cross-bedding is oriented horizontally at the time of
deposition.

Figure 2
Layers are Deposited Horizontally
©
Created @ SAIT

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 Lateral Continuity

Sediments are deposited in layers that continue laterally until they either pinch out
(become thin and eventually end), or terminate against the edge of the basin they
are being deposited in. Geologists use this principle to demonstrate that rock
layers on one side of a valley were originally connected to those on the other side
(see Figure 3). Rapid lateral changes are common in certain depositional
environments, such as in river channels and deltas, limiting the applicability of
this rule.

Figure 3
Layers That Have Been Subsequently Removed by Erosion
Were at One Time Originally Laterally Continuous
©
Created @ SAIT

Cross-Cutting Relationships

In situations where one rock unit cuts across another, the rock unit that has been
cut through must have formed before the one that cuts through it. This rule
establishes the relative ages of the rock units. In sedimentary rocks it usually only
applies in situations where the sedimentary rocks have been cut through by
younger molten rock (magma) which later solidifies (see Figure 4).

Figure 4
A Younger Intrusion of Molten Igneous Rock has Forced its Way Up
Through the Older Sedimentary Layers and Solidified
©
Created @ SAIT

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Inclusions

Sedimentary layers may include fragments of the underlying rock layers called
inclusions (see Figure 5). Rocks that contain inclusions must be younger in age
than the underlying rocks. Inclusions can be used to recognize “way up” in areas
where the layers may have been overturned due to faulting and folding.

Figure 5
Inclusions of the Underling Beds included in the Overlying Beds
©
Created @ SAIT

Fossil Succession

Paleontologists study fossils and have developed fossil successions which show
how fossils have changed over time. Even subtle changes in what appears to be
the same fossil can be used to demonstrate the age of rocks. If a certain sequence
or succession of fossils is expected, and some fossils are observed to be absent in
a sequence of sedimentary rocks (see Figure 6), the break in the succession can be
used as evidence of a period of non-deposition, or a period of deposition followed
by erosion. Gaps in the geological record are called unconformities and are
examined in Module 6.

Figure 6
Fossil Succession Showing a Gap in the Geological
Record Where Fossils “c” and “d” are missing
©
Created @ SAIT

Exercise One
1. Describe Uniformitarianism and how it is applied to interpret geological
features and processes.

2. Describe three principles used to analyze age relationships of sedimentary

rocks.

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 OBJECTIVE TWO
When you complete this objective you will be able to…
Outline how sedimentary structures can be used to interpret depositional
environments.

Learning Material
SEDIMENTARY FEATURES

Sedimentary features are formed during deposition and after deposition while the
sediment is still unlithified. These features are formed by either physical
processes such as currents or biological processes such as organisms burrowing in
the sediment.

Sedimentary features, also called sedimentary structures, are indicative of

conditions at the time of deposition, or shortly thereafter and are used to interpret
the depositional environment. Depositional environments refer to the place and
conditions under which sediments are formed, and are discussed in more detail in
Modules 6 and 7. Sand deposited in a river may share characteristics with sand
deposited on a beach but will also have distinctive depositional features that
indicate deposition from flowing water currents in a river.

Bedding

Beds are distinct layers of sedimentary rocks that can vary in thickness from a
centimetre to tens of metres. Layers that are less than a centimeter in thickness are
called laminae. Beds have distinguishable features that make themselves distinct
from other beds, or they may appear similar but are separated from one another by
bedding planes. The appearance of a bed can vary due to its lithology, colour,
grain size or composition, texture or other sedimentary features.

Planar beds are formed by either fast or slow-moving currents and consist of thin
parallel laminae (see Figure 7).

Figure 7
Planar Bedding
©
Created @ SAIT

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Graded Bedding

Grain size is not always constant, even within a bed, due to changing conditions at
the time of deposition. A graded bed exhibits a change (gradation) from coarser-
grained at the base to finer-grained at the top (see Figure 8). This gradation is due
to waning current conditions which result in the coarser grains settling out first
and the finer ones later. Graded beds may be stacked on top of each other
indicating repeating events of high current flow followed by low flow.

Figure 8
Graded Beds

Cross-Bedding

Cross-beds are beds which have inclined layers (beds) within them. These beds
have the appearance of a stack of books that have been placed on end and allowed
to lean over to one side (see Figure 9). Cross-bedding indicates deposition from a
moving fluid, either water or air. As the current moves particles along they are
pushed up the slope of the bed and are deposited on the steeper down-current side
where the water flow becomes temporarily turbulent (see Figure 10). Erosion of
the bed occurs on the up-current side truncating previously-formed beds. On the
down-current side, the bases of the cross-beds taper to the horizontal at the base
of the bed.

Figure 9
Cross-Bedding

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 Figure 10
Migrating Bedform

The inclined layers within a bed may be inclined in different directions from one
bed to another, indicating changes in current direction. This gives the appearance
of fish bones and is called herringbone cross-bedding (Figure 11).

Figure 11
Herringbone Cross-bedding.

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Migrating bedforms that have a curved rather than straight crest produce cross-
beds that have a trough shape when seen end-on (that is, looking up or down-
current) and are called trough cross-beds (see Figure 12).

Figure 12
Trough Cross-beds

Hummocky cross-stratification is a term applied to beds that gently thicken and

thin over a distance of several metres laterally. These beds also rise into
hummocks at their thickest parts and thin into swales at their thinnest part (see
Figure 13) and are formed on shallow shelf areas of the ocean by intense wave
action during large storms.

Figure 13
Hummocky Cross-Stratification

Ripple Marks

Ripple marks have a characteristic wavy appearance and can be the result of
deposition of the sediment in water that is moving in one direction, or oscillating
back and forth.

Symmetrical ripples (Figure 14) are caused by water moving back and forth in
shallow water as tides go in and out, or where the current direction varies due to
wind or wave action.

Figure 14
Symmetrical Ripples
©
Created @ SAIT

Asymmetrical ripples (Figure 15) are formed by current flowing predominantly in

one direction in situations such as rivers and channels. Particles are moved up the
shallow side of the ripple by the current and tumble down the steep side. The
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 steep side of the ripple therefore indicates the direction that the current was
moving from. These ripples can form underwater as well as on or near sand
dunes.

Figure 15
Asymmetrical Ripples
©
Created @ SAIT

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BEDDING PLANE FEATURES

Many sedimentary features are best observed in cross-section (that is, looking at
beds from the side), but some may only be visible on a bedding surface (that is,
looking down onto the top of a bed). Bedding plane features are sometimes best
preserved on the underside of bedding planes where sediment from the overlying
bed has filled in the scour (the mould) forming a cast. These bedding plane
features are sometimes referred to as “Sole Marks” as they appear on the sole
(that is, the foot of) the overlying bed.

Scour Marks

Scour marks are small, local erosional features caused by current flowing round
an obstacle on the bedding surface. Examples are scours around pebbles or the
remains of an organism such as a shell.

Flute Casts

Flute casts are also caused by erosion at bedding surfaces. A flute cast is a small
scour caused by uneven currents or changes in current velocity due to variations
in the topography of the bedding surface.

Tool Marks

Tool marks are features that indicate movement of a solid particle (the tool)
across a soft bedding surface. Grooves are formed when an object (for example, a
pebble) is dragged across the surface by a current. If the velocity of the current is
sufficient, the object may be lifted and bounced along the sediment surface
leaving bounce or skip marks. Tool marks are aligned parallel to the current
direction.

Mud Cracks

Mud cracks form when muddy (clay-rich) sediment dries out. Mud contains a
significant amount of water (up to 80% by volume) and if this water evaporates,
cracks form. Mud cracks are an indicator of subaerial exposure. While other types
of sediment can be subaerially exposed, there may be no indication of this unless
the sediment contains at least some mud. Mud cracks are not observed in
sandstones, for example.

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 Raindrop Imprints

These features are rare because a unique sequence of events must occur for the
imprints to form and be preserved. A muddy sediment must be subaerially
exposed for a short period (short enough so mud cracks don’t form and so it
doesn’t harden), then it must rain, but only enough so that the imprints are formed
and do not subsequently get washed away. A very short rainstorm with large
drops followed by further drying to solidify the imprints in the mud produces
good imprints. Finally, the sediment must then be covered by other layers of
sediment without having the bedding surface with the imprints eroded.

Bioturbation

Bioturbation is any process caused by a living organism on or within the sediment

that disturbs the sediment or leaves an indication of the organism’s presence.
Bioturbation indicates that the environment was favourable for the organisms and
that the sediment was unlithified. Different types of organism favour different
environments and these organisms often leave distinct, identifiable features in the
sediment that can be used to help interpret the conditions at the time of deposition
(depositional environment). These features are called “Trace Fossils” or
“Ichnofossils” and are discussed in the next section. In some cases, especially if
the rate of sedimentation is low, bioturbation can mask or completely erase
original sedimentary features such as bedding.

Fossils

Fossils are lithified remains of ancient organisms. Typically, only the hard parts
of the organism are preserved, such as bones, teeth, and shells.

Macro and Micro Fossils

Macrofossils are large fossils, visible to the unaided eye, while microfossils
require magnification to be visible. Microfossils are liberated by dissolving the
rock in acid. Fossilized plant pollen is very useful for age dating rocks and can
give indications of the environment of deposition by revealing the types of plants
that were growing nearby at the time of deposition. Microscopic marine
organisms like plankton may indicate conditions such as water depth and
temperature.

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Trace/Ichnofossils

Ichnofossils are traces of living organisms left in sediment as the organism moved
around on the surface of the sediment or lived within the sediment. Ichnofossils or
trace fossils have risen to prominence in the past twenty years as indicators of
depositional environments. These sedimentary features were previously ignored
until sufficient scientific study had been done to link the traces with the organisms
that formed them. These organisms were in turn, using Uniformitarianism, linked
to modern organisms and their habitats.

Certain trace fossils or groups (assemblages) of fossils are now indicative of

certain depositional environments. For example, some organisms like shrimp that
live in shallow marine environments like to burrow into the sediment and
depending on the species, leave a distinctive burrow or tube. These burrows have
distinctive shapes and appearances, which can be recognized in sedimentary
rocks. Burrow characteristics such as orientation, shape, size, whether or not it
branches, pattern or texture of the wall, type of fill, and other features are all used
to differentiate burrows made by different organisms. Other organisms leave
tracks (on bedding planes) and feeding trails. Large organisms like dinosaurs and
birds may leave traces such as footprints on sediment surfaces, however like
raindrop imprints, conditions do not always favour formation and preservation of
these traces. Trace fossils are extremely useful for identifying certain sedimentary
depositional environments, especially if the rock is devoid of other fossils.

Trace fossils are an indication of bioturbation, but the best trace fossils occur in
rocks that are only mildly bioturbated. Extensive bioturbation can mask some of
the traces and obliterate other sedimentary features. Most trace fossils are easily
observed in core (whole rock samples specially cut during the drilling process),
and outcrop, as these are usually viewed from the side. Trace fossils that occur on
bedding planes such as tracks are less commonly observed in core and outcrop
depending on the number of bedding planes that are exposed.

Vertical Trends

Two types of vertical trends in sedimentary successions are characteristic of

certain depositional environments. These trends involve gradual changes in the
grain size of the sediment across a number of vertically stacked beds.

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 Fining-Upward and Coarsening-Upward Successions

Fining-upward cycles or successions have beds composed of coarser-grained

sediment at the base, which gradually fines upward with each successive bed
towards the top of the cycle (see Figure 16). Coarsening-upward cycles are the
reverse: finer-grained sediment is found in the beds at the bottom of the cycle and
the grain size gradually increases towards the top (see Figure 17). In each case the
change in grain size is an indicator of changing current conditions over a period of
time. The profiles shown in Figures 16 and 17 represent rock outcrops where the
coarser grained beds stand out in relief while the finer grained or shalier beds are
recessive (that is, recede because they are more easily eroded).

Figure 16
Fining-Upward Succession
©
Created @ SAIT

Figure 17
Coarsening-Upward Succession
©
Created @ SAIT
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GEOL 6022
Exercise Two
1. List and briefly describe three sedimentary features that indicate current flow.

2. Describe the two types of ripple marks and the types of current conditions
they indicate.

3. Describe the two types of vertical trends seen in sedimentary rocks and
explain variations in current conditions they indicate.

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GEOL 6022
Exercise One Answers
1. Present is key to past, and therefore, processes we observe today are assumed
to have operated in the same way in the past. By observing processes today,
we can interpret how rocks formed in the past.

2. Any three of: superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity, cross-

cutting relationships, inclusions, and fossil succession, along with a brief
description of each.

Exercise Two Answers

1. Any of: planar beds, cross-beds (several types), hummocky cross-
stratification, flute casts, tool marks.

2. Symmetrical ripples (water moving back and forth in shallow tidal

conditions); asymmetrical ripples (current flowing predominantly in one
direction in rivers and channels).

3. Fining upward successions: beds of coarser-grained sediment at the base

which gradually fines upward with each successive bed towards the top of the
cycle; indicates waning current condition over a period of time. Coarsening-
upward successions: finer-grained sediment in the beds at the bottom of the
cycle and the grain size gradually increases towards the top; indicates
increasing currents over a period of time.

GEOL 6022
16

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Module Self-Test
Directions:

• Answer the following questions.

• Compare your answers to the enclosed answer key.
• If you disagree with any of the answers, review learning activities and/or check with your
instructor.
• If no problems arise, continue on to the next objective or next examination.

1. The geological principle that states that geological layers are deposited on top
of one another so that the oldest is at the base and the youngest at the top is
called:

a) Superposition.
b) An unconformity.
c) Cross-bedding.
d) Uniformitarianism.

2. Inclusions in a sedimentary bed:

a) Are derived from the bed above.

b) Are derived from the bed below.
c) Occur in cross-bedding.
d) Are the result of drying out of the bed.

3. Which type of trace fossil is an indicator of a shallow marine depositional

environment?

a) Dinosaur footprints.
b) Raindrop imprints.
c) Burrows.
d) Mud cracks.

4. Cross-bedding indicates:

a) Deposition in still water.

b) Deposition in flowing water.
c) That the beds have been tilted.
d) Arid climatic conditions.

GEOL 6022
 5. Fining-upward successions indicate:

a) Hummocky cross-stratification.
b) Uneven erosion patterns.
c) Changing flow conditions over time.
d) Bioturbation.

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18

GEOL 6022
 I

Module Self-Test Answers

1. a).
!tltt!P
2. b).

3. c).

4. b).

5. c).

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GEOL 6022
I

Assignment
NifP
Sketch five sedimentary features and explain the significance of each.

GEOL 6022
20

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GEOL 6022
GEOL 6022
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