Ch07 Ground Loads 2020

Chapter 7
Ground Loads
7.1. Ground Loads Conditions
7.2. Landing Loads
7.3. Ground Handling Loads
7.4. Global Effect and Special Cases
Chapter 7: Ground Loads
Table of Contents → Detailed 7.1
◼ 7.1. Ground Loads Conditions

◼ 7.1.1. Overview
◼ 7.1.2. Requirements
◼ 7.2. Landing Loads
◼ 7.3. Ground Handling Loads
◼ 7.4. Global Effect and Special Cases
2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 2

7.1.1. Overview
◼ Loads on the ground are supported by the landing gear and transmitted
to the aircraft main structure.
◼ Landing loads grow with aircraft mass, vertical speed and load factor
developed during the contact with the ground.
◼ Note that the definition of load factors on ground include the total forces due to
(aerodynamics + propulsion + landing gear), divided by the weight (where the
positive Z direction is shown in figure 7-2):
−(𝐹𝑍𝐴 +𝐹𝑍𝑇 +𝐹𝑍𝐿𝐺 )
𝑁𝑍 = 𝑚𝑔
(7.1)
Similar definitions apply for 𝑁𝑋 and 𝑁𝑌 .
Horizontal X
speed
Sink O
rate
Total speed
Y
Z
Figure 7-1 Figure 7-2

7.1.1. Overview
◼ Landing loads depend on several
variables, mainly:
◼ Aircraft Maximum Landing Mass (MLM).
◼ Vertical speed at landing, known as sink
rate (see figure 7-1).
◼ Flight speed, which is related to the stall
speed at landing configuration.
◼ Shock absorber stroke, which is related
to the target of NZ for landing.
◼ The analysis of landing loads must
include several landing scenarios in Figure 7-3: One-wheel landing
addition to the vertical regular
touchdown, like:
◼ One-wheel landing.
◼ Crabbed landing with side force.
◼ Spin-up and spring-back, due to
triggering of tyres rotation.
◼ Ground handling loads are due to
manoeuvres such as braking, taxiing,
turning, towing, etc.
◼ These loads must be calculated up to the
Maximum Ramp Weight (MRW). Figure 7-4: Ground handling

7.1.1. Overview
◼ Calculation of ground loads requires having adequate landing
gear models.
◼ In general, the aircraft and landing gear are treated as equivalent
mass-spring-damper systems, involving non-linear models.
Aircraft mass
𝑀
Shock
 absorbers (Generally
𝑚≪𝑀 non-linear
models)
Tyres
Figure 7-5(a) Figure 7-5(b)

7.1.2. Requirements
◼ CS-25 & FAR-25 general application criteria for ground loads are:
◼ 25.471 General
◼ 25.473 Landing load conditions and assumptions
◼ 25.477 Landing gear arrangement
◼ 25.489 Ground handling conditions
◼ CS-25 & FAR-25 landing conditions are:
◼ 25.479 Level landing conditions
◼ 25.481 Tail-down landing conditions
◼ 25.483 One-gear landing conditions
◼ 25.485 Side load conditions
◼ 25.487 Rebound landing condition
◼ CS-25 & FAR-25 ground handling conditions are:
◼ 25.491 Taxi, takeoff and landing roll
◼ 25.493 Braked roll conditions
◼ 25.495 Turning
◼ 25.497 Tail-wheel yawing
◼ 25.499 Nose-wheel yaw and steering
◼ 25.503 Pivoting
◼ 25.507 Reversed braking
◼ 25.509 Towing loads
◼ Requirement affecting both landing and ground handling:
◼ 25.511 Unsymmetrical loads on multiple wheel units

◼ 7.2.1. Conditions and Assumptions (25.473)
◼ 7.2.2. Level landing conditions by 25.479
◼ 7.2.3. Tail-down landing conditions by 25.481
◼ 7.2.4. One-gear landing conditions by 25.483
◼ 7.2.5. Side load conditions by 25.485
◼ 7.2.6. Summary of landing bookcases

7.2. Landing Loads
7.2.1. Conditions and Assumptions (25.473)
◼ By requirement of 25.473(a) the limit descent velocities are:
◼ 10 fps at MLM (Maximum Landing Mass with nominal sink rate).
◼ 6 fps at MTOM (Maximum Take-Off Mass with reduced sink rate).
◼ Exceeding above sink rates may produce hazardous hard landings.
Figure 7-6:
DC-9-80
very hard landing
(16.5 fps) during
certification tests,
May 1980.

7.2. Landing Loads
◼ By 25.473(b) aircraft lift may be considered, but not being greater
than the weight.
◼ This is the called “1g” flight condition previous to landing, in which
aerodynamic and inertia forces are balanced.
◼ By 25.473(c) the method of analysis must take into account:
◼ Landing gear dynamic characteristics.
◼ Spin-up and spring-back phenomena.
◼ Rigid body response.
◼ Structural dynamic response of the airframe, if significant.
◼ The a/c structural dynamic response is usually relevant.
◼ Then, to calculate landing loads it is needed to have coupled dynamic
models of airframe + landing gear, yielding the dynamic landing cases.
◼ In addition, the so called “landing bookcases” must be considered and
can be treated as static load cases. These cases enable a preliminary
simplified analysis based on:
◼ Selection of singular points of the landing gear response.
◼ Modification of applied forces.
◼ Combination with rigid aircraft response.

7.2. Landing Loads
◼ By 25.473(d) the landing gear ◼ By 25.473(e):
dynamic characteristics must be ◼ The coefficient of friction  between
validated by tests. the tyres and the ground may be
established by considering the effects
of tyre pressure and skidding velocity,
which is the difference between the
aircraft forward speed and the wheel
radial speed. This effect is sketched
in figure 7-8.
◼ However, this friction coefficient need
not be more than 0.8.
Skidding
Figure 7-7: velocity
Drop test facilities Figure 7-8
7.2. Landing Loads
◼ The landing bookcases are based on “synthetic” variations of the forces
that are reached during the normal landing, affecting to:
◼ Vertical ground forces (FZ)
◼ Longitudinal ground forces (FX)
◼ Lateral ground forces (FY)
◼ Figure 7-9(a) represents a sketch of the time-histories of the loads on
wheels during landing.
Force Three "critical" conditions in
Max FZ terms of experienced forces at
wheels during landing are
faced at different landing times
Spin-up FZ
Figure 7-9(a):
Sketch of vertical and
longitudinal forces
on wheels
FX
Time
Spring-back
7.2. Landing Loads
◼ To build the landing bookcases the most significant instants must
be extracted from the time history. They usually are:
◼ Maximum FZ at each wheel. Conditions to define
◼ Maximum FZ due to the sum of wheels. landing bookcases
◼ Spin-up condition for each wheel (see figure 7-10):

◼ When the tyres contact the ground, they are not rotating.
◼ The friction force of the runway applies a large rearward force on the gear,
making the wheels to spin up in a short time.
Landing gear wheels start to rotate
◼ Spring-back condition for each wheel (see figure 7-11): quickly and landing gear spring back.
◼ After spin-up, the friction force reduces strongly, due to the reaching of zero slip
condition, and the landing gear springs back.
Figure 7-10: Spin-up Figure 7-11: Spring-back

7.2. Landing Loads
7.2.2. Level landing conditions by 25.479
◼ In level landing, two attitudes must be investigated:
◼ (1) Main wheels are assumed to contact the ground with the nose
wheel just clear of the ground.
◼ (2) Nose and main wheels contact the ground simultaneously.
◼ The forward speed ranges from VL1 to 1.25VL2 where:
◼ VL1 is the stall speed at MLM, with standard atmosphere.
◼ VL2 is the stall speed at MLM, with hot ISA+22.8ºC (41ºF).
◼ Dynamic loads must be obtained; and additionally bookcases for
the most significant instants: Once reactions for Level landing
conditions have been defined over
◼ Spin-up time, bookcases are defined:
◼ Spring-back
◼ Maximum vertical force FZ,
combined with a drag force
FX = 25% FZ
◼ Lateral drift landing, combining:
• FZ = 75% max
• Side force FY = 25%FZ
• Drag force FX = 40% FZ Figure 7-12
7.2. Landing Loads
7.2.3. Tail-down landing conditions by 25.481
◼ For tail-down landing, the
attitude is the lower of:
Wing angle of attack at
◼ The stalling angle. stalling angle attitude
◼ The maximum angle that
allows clearance with the
ground.
◼ Speeds range: VL1  VL2
◼ Dynamic loads must be
obtained.
◼ Additionally bookcases for
the most significant
instants:
◼ Spin-up
◼ Spring-back
◼ Maximum vertical force FZ,
combined with a drag force
FX = 25% FZ. Figure 7-13

Bookcase defined from Level landing
7.2. Landing Loads reactions, it means a bookcase from
level landing.
7.2.4. One-gear landing conditions by 25.483

◼ One-gear landing under 25.483 uses the reactions of 25.479 “level
landing”, at the instant of maximum vertical force, but applied only
on 1 gear (that is, at one aircraft side).
◼ The asymmetric ground reactions are balanced with inertia (angular
accelerations as required).
Figure 7-14
7.2. Landing Loads
Bookcase defined from Level landing
7.2.5. Side load conditions by 25.485 reactions, it means a bookcase from
level landing.
◼ Side load conditions under 25.485 use the reactions of 25.479

“level landing” to apply the following set of conditions:
Side load landing conditions
◼ Vertical load: are defined from Level
50% maximum FZ. landing reactions and
applying some assumptions:
◼ Lateral loads:
◼ FY = 80% FZ
on one side,
acting inward
◼ FY = 60% FZ
on the other side,
acting outward
◼ Null FX.
◼ All balanced with inertia
(angular accelerations
as required).
Figure 7-15
7.2. Landing Loads
7.2.6. Summary of landing bookcases
◼ Taking as a reference the maximum vertical force of the time history,
the set of bookcases can be represented by the following equations:
◼ 𝐹𝑍 = 𝐾𝑍 𝐹𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 (7.2) Vertical force
◼ 𝐹𝑋 = 𝐾𝑋 𝐹𝑍 = 𝐾𝑋 𝐾𝑍 𝐹𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 (7.3) Drag force
◼ 𝐹𝑌 = 𝐾𝑌 𝐹𝑍 = 𝐾𝑌 𝐾𝑍 𝐹𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 (7.4) Side force
◼ Next table recaps the factors to be considered.
◼ Values of FZmax and spin-up and spring-back factors (KZU, KXU, KZB, KXB) are
extracted from the time histories.
Bookcases KZ KZ KX KZ KY Applicability
Max vertical force 1 0.25 0 Level & tail-down landing
Spin-up KZU (<1) KZUKXU (>0) 0 Level & tail-down landing
Spring-back KZB (<1) KZBKXB (<0) 0 Level & tail-down landing
Lateral drift landing 0.75 0.750.4 0.750.25 Level landing
But only applied
One-gear landing 1 0.25 0 Level landing to one AC side
Side load conditions 0.5 0 0.50.7 Level landing

0.8 for the inward and
0.6 for the outward
2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads (avergae 0.7) 17
◼ 7.3.1. Conditions and Assumptions
◼ 7.3.2. Taxi, take-off and landing roll (25.491) Out of Program
◼ 7.3.3. Braked roll conditions (25.493)

◼ 7.3.4. Turning (25.495)
◼ 7.3.5. Nose-wheel yaw and steering (25.499)
◼ 7.3.6. Pivoting (25.503)
◼ 7.3.7. Reversed braking (25.507)
◼ 7.3.8. Towing Loads (25.509)

7.3.1. Conditions and Assumptions
◼ By requirement of Figure 7-16
25.489:
◼ Ground handling MRM
PL
conditions must be MTOM
investigated at the MLM
maximum ramp mass

(MRM).
FUEL
Note that MRM>MTOM
as shown in figure 7-16.
◼ No aerodynamic lift may ◼ Conditions presented
be considered. hereafter are referred to
the most common nose-
◼ The shock absorbers and
wheel landing gear types.
tyres may be assumed to
be in their static position. ◼ Tail-wheel types have
similar rules.

Out of Program
7.3. Ground Handling Loads Only for information
7.3.2. Taxi, take-off and landing roll (25.491)

◼ The aircraft structure and landing gear are subjected to
dynamic loads due to the roughness of the runway.
◼ There are 2 kinds of requirements:
◼ Runway Profile conditions 12,5
SAN FRANCISCO 28R
(figure 7-17).
12
Discrete Load conditions
ELEVATION (ft)
◼
11,5
(figure 7-18).
11
BUMPS for L/G BASE = 25 m 10,5

L = base L = 2 x base
10
200
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
DISTANCE (ft)
150
Figure 7-17(a)
H (mm)
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Figure 7-17(b)
X (m) SF 28R
resurfaced runway
Figure 7-18
Out of Program

◼ Runway Profile condition by AMC 25.491:
◼ Dynamic models of airframe flexibility and landing gear
dynamic characteristics are necessary in most cases.
◼ For civil aircrafts, a dynamic analysis based on the San
Francisco old Runway 28R (figure 7-17) is an acceptable
method for compliance.
◼ This runway profile (before it was resurfaced) was known to cause
high loads on aeroplanes and was the subject of pilot complaints.
◼ For military aircrafts, more critical profiles are used.
◼ Aircraft design loads should be developed for the most critical
cases of weight and speeds arising from taxi, take-off, and
landing run.
◼ Constant speed runs must be calculated in both directions:
◼ Take-off: from 20 knots up to rotation speed VR.
◼ Landing: from 20 knots up to 1.25 VL2.
Out of Program

◼ Discrete Load condition by AMC 25.491: one of the
following conditions should be evaluated:
a) With all landing gears in contact with the ground, the
condition of a vertical load equal to 1.7 times the static
ground reaction, with and without thrust from the engines.
b) Dynamic analyses considering the aircraft response to pairs
of identical and contiguous (1-cos) upwards bumps with:
◼ (i) Wavelengths equal to the mean longitudinal distance between
nose and main landing gears.
◼ (ii) Bump wavelengths equal to twice this distance.
◼ The bump height is defined as H = A + B L1/2, where
◼ H = the bump height.
◼ L = the bump wavelength.
◼ A = 30.5, B = 0.116, if H and L are expressed in mm.

7.3.3. Braked roll conditions (25.493)
◼ Static analysis by 25.493(b).
◼ A drag reaction is applied at
each wheel having brakes.
◼ It is the vertical reaction multiplied
by a friction coefficient of 0.8.
◼ Two conditions for vertical
reactions must be considered: ramp
◼ NZ =1.2 at max. landing weight.
◼ NZ =1.0 at max. ramp weight.
◼ Two attitudes are considered:
◼ (1) The level attitude with the
wheels contacting the ground and
the loads distributed between the
main and nose gear. Zero pitching . .
acceleration is assumed.
◼ (2) The level attitude with only the
main gear contacting the ground.
The pitching moment is balanced
by angular acceleration.
Figure 7-19

7.3.3. Braked roll conditions (25.493)
FZ NLG
◼ Dynamic braking by 25.493(d).
◼ The aeroplane is considered at
MTOM at 1g with the nose and main
gears in contact with the ground.
◼ A sudden application of the

maximum braking force (with
coefficient of friction of 0.8) is
considered.
◼ This provokes a dynamic pitching

motion that increases the vertical
reaction at the NLG.
The response is like the sketch
shown in figure 7-20.
Notice that this is case of dynamic 0 1 2
reactions but it is not required to TIME (s)
compute loads due to structural
dynamic response. Figure 7-20
7.3.4. Turning (25.495)
Steering - Direccion - Orientación
◼ The aeroplane is assumed to execute a steady turn (either

by nose wheel steering or by differential thrust) so that the
limit load factors at the cg are NZ=1.0 and NY=0.5.
◼ The side ground reaction of each wheel is 50% of the vertical one.
◼ This condition represents a high speed ground turning, having a
significant lateral acceleration.
W = VM2 + VM1 + VN
0.5 W = 0.5VM1+0.5VM2-0.5VN
Figure 7-21

7.3.5. Nose-wheel yaw and steering (25.499)
◼ Three bookcases under 25.499 aim to design the maximum
NLG side load, including its effect on forward fuselage:
The larger 1. Side component at nose wheel ground contact equal to 0.8 times
of the three
bookcases. the static vertical reaction at that point, with NZ=1.
◼ Aircraft equilibrium is achieved by lateral load factor (NY0) and yaw
acceleration (dr/dt0).
2. Use of brakes on one side of the main landing gear (as depicted in
figure 7-22), in combination with:
◼ Vertical load factor NZ=1, side load factor NY=0 and dr/dt=0.
◼ Forward inertia load at aircraft cg equal to 0.8 times the vertical load on
one main gear.
◼ Side and vertical loads at the nose landing gear that are required for static
equilibrium. Side load is limited to 80% vertical load; if this limit is reached,
yaw acceleration is no longer zero.
3. Combined application of full normal steering torque at NLG
(maximum MZ) and a vertical force equal to 1.33 times the
maximum static reaction on the nose gear.
◼ Maximum steering torque MZ is a NLG design parameter.
7.3.5. Nose-wheel yaw and steering (25.499)
Bookcasew 2: Figure 7-22: Nose-wheel yaw by use of brakes on one side of the MLG
Brakes of one side
on MLG
There are five unknowns (X,Y,Y’,Z and
CG
Z’) and five equations:
X 2Z
Brake coefficient (7.5)
Z’ h Mg Lateral force (7.6)
Side Vertical force (7.7)
view X Pitching moment (7.8)
Yawing moment (7.9)
a b
X = 0.8 Z (7.5)
X
Y = Y’ (7.6)
2Z + Z’ = Mg (7.7)
d Z’ a = 2Z b + X h (7.8)
Plan X CG
X d = Y’ a + Y b (7.9)
view
Y’ Y d Notes:
The same vertical load (Z) is assumed
Wheel base = a+b on each side of the MLG.
Wheel track = 2d In case of several axles in MLG, the
forces are equally distributed.
7.3.6. Pivoting (25.503)
◼ This bookcase represents a
ground turning at low speed,
with a lateral acceleration
close to 0.
◼ The aircraft is assumed to
pivot about one side of the
main gear, with:
◼ Vertical load factor = 1
◼ Coefficient of friction = 0.8.
◼ Brakes on that side locked,
combined with asymmetric
thrust to provide null NX and
the adequate yawing moment
to counteract friction forces at:
a) NLG (steered).
b) The other side of the MLG.
c) The blocked side of the MLG,
in case of multiple axles;
having lateral loads equal to
80% vertical load. Figure 7-23
7.3.7. Reversed braking (25.507)
◼ The aeroplane must be in the 3 points static ground attitude.
◼ Horizontal reactions directed forward are applied at the ground
contact point of each wheel with brakes. These reactions are
limited by:
a) 0.55 times the vertical
load at each wheel; or
b) The load developed by
1.2 times the nominal
maximum static brake
torque, whichever is
less.
◼ The pitching moment is
balanced by rotational
inertia.
Figure 7-24

7.3.8. Towing Loads (25.509)
Figure 7-25
◼ The towing force depends on: 30000
◼ Aircraft mass.
◼ Point of towing.
FTOW (lb)
◼ Direction of towing. 15000 15%
◼ While towing, a vertical load 30%
factor of 1.0 is considered
acting at the aircraft cg. 0
◼ The towing load FTOW is set by 0 100000 200000
regulation, within 15-30% of the Maximum Ramp Weight (lb)
design ramp weight WT. Figure 7-25
Out of Program
7.3.8. Towing Loads (25.509)

◼ The prescribed towing loads are specified in a table:


◼ 7.4.1. Global Effect on aircraft loads
◼ 7.4.2. Unsymmetrical loads on wheels (25.511)

7.4. Global Effect and Special Cases
7.4.1. Global Effect on aircraft loads
◼ Ground loads cases are usually significant for the
following aircraft areas:
◼ Forward fuselage. It is like a cantilever beam without
lifting surfaces, getting:
◼ Inertia loads.
◼ Nose landing gear reactions acting as concentrated loads.
◼ Rear fuselage that gets:
◼ Down inertia loads combined with HTP down loads in landing.
◼ High lateral inertia loads in cases like lateral drift and side load
landing (25.479(d)(2) and 25.485) and turning (25.495).
◼ Structural joints wing-fuselage (in particular for cases
with high lateral load factors).
◼ MLG and NLG supporting structure.

FAR regulation stablishes also
requierements related to
7.4. Global Effect and Special Cases Unsymmetrical loads on wheel
generated by difference
between wheels or deflated
7.4.2. Unsymmetrical loads on wheels (25.511) tyres in ground handling and
landing conditions.
◼ Requirement 25.511 “Unsymmetrical loads on multiple-

wheel units” refers to both ground handling and landing
conditions. It takes into account:
◼ Differences between wheels due to:
◼ Any differentials in tyre diameters resulting from the combination of
manufacturing tolerances and tyre wear.
◼ Any unequal tyre inflation pressure (5%).
◼ Runway having a convex shape that may be approximate by a
slope of 1.5% with respect to the horizontal.
◼ Aeroplane attitude and any structural deflections.
◼ Deflated tyres
◼ Several percentages (in the range from 40 to 60%) of nominal
landing and ground handling loads are specified in the regulations
for the cases of one or two deflated tyres.
◼ In general, this effect is important for the landing gear
itself but is not so important for the aircraft structure.

References
1. D. P. Raymer
Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach
AIAA Education Series; 1st edition 1989 → 5th edition 2012
2. A. K. Kundu
Aircraft Design
Cambridge University Press; 2010
3. J. Ijff
Analysis of dynamic aircraft landing loads, and a proposal for rational
design landing load requirements
Delft University; 1972
4. European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)
Certification Specification and Acceptable Means of Compliance for
Large Aeroplanes, CS-25
Amendment 16, Mar-2015.
5. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
Title 14 of Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
Part 25: Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Airplanes
Amendment 25-141, Sep-2015.

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Chapter 7

◼ 7.1. Ground Loads Conditions

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 2

Figure 7-1 Figure 7-2

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 4

Figure 7-5(a) Figure 7-5(b)

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 5

◼ 7.1. Ground Loads Conditions

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 7

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 8

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 9

◼ Spin-up condition for each wheel (see figure 7-10):

Figure 7-10: Spin-up Figure 7-11: Spring-back

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 14

7.2.4. One-gear landing conditions by 25.483

◼ Side load conditions under 25.485 use the reactions of 25.479

Side load conditions 0.5 0 0.50.7 Level landing

◼ 7.3.3. Braked roll conditions (25.493)

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 18

maximum ramp mass

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 19

7.3.2. Taxi, take-off and landing roll (25.491)

BUMPS for L/G BASE = 25 m 10,5

7.3.2. Taxi, take-off and landing roll (25.491)

7.3.2. Taxi, take-off and landing roll (25.491)

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 22

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 23

◼ A sudden application of the

◼ This provokes a dynamic pitching

◼ The aeroplane is assumed to execute a steady turn (either

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 25

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 29

7.3.8. Towing Loads (25.509)

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 31

◼ 7.1. Ground Loads Conditions

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 32

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 33

◼ Requirement 25.511 “Unsymmetrical loads on multiple-

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 34

2020 AADC2 - Chapter 7: Ground Loads 35

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