where the subscript denotes any number of arbitrarily selected positions along the flowing

system. This principle, known as continuity, is especially useful in the analysis of tube flow
measurement devices such as the venturi meter.

5. Flow Totalization

Water is sold and measured in terms of total volume consumed, say cubic feet, over some
convenient time period, perhaps for billing each month. Many flowmeters have built in
capability to sum or totalize volume continually. Thus, the volume consumed is obtained by
taking the difference of two sequential monthly readings. To aid irrigation operation and
management, most meters provide instantaneous rate of flow or discharge displayed in units such
as cubic feet per second. These flow rates are used to set flow and predict the volume of water
that will be consumed for intervals of time after flow setting.

6. Other Examples of Velocity Flow Measurement Devices

Measuring devices not previously mentioned are dilution in the concentration of tracers, such as
salts and dyes; acoustic or magnetic meters; pitot tubes; rotameters, which are tapered tubes with
suspended flow indicators; and many others that are not commonly used. In the dilution method,
discharge is calculated by determining the quantity of water necessary to dilute a known quantity
of concentrated chemical or dye solution. Chemical analysis or color comparison is used to
determine the degree of dilution of the injected or mixed samples. In transit time acoustic meters,
the velocity of sound pulses in the direction of flow is compared to the velocity of sound pulses
opposite to the direction of flow to determine the mean velocity and, thus, discharge. With
Doppler acoustic meters, sound pulses are reflected from moving particles within the water mass,
similar to radar. In the magnetic meter, the flowing water acts like a moving electrical conductor
passing through a magnetic field to produce a voltage that is proportional to discharge. Pitot
tubes relate velocity head, V2/2g, to discharge.

7. Velocity Head Concept

A dropped rock or other object will gain speed rapidly as it falls. Measurements show that an
object dropping 1 foot (ft) will reach a velocity of 8.02 feet per second (ft/s). An object dropping
4 ft will reach a velocity of 16.04 ft/s. After an 8ft drop, the velocity attained is 22.70 ft/s. This
gain in speed or acceleration is caused by the force of gravity, which is equal to 32.2 feet per
second per second (ft/s2). This acceleration caused by gravity is referred to as g.

If water is stored in a tank and a small opening is made in the tank wall 1 ft below the water
surface, the water will spout from the opening with a velocity of 8.02 ft/s. This velocity has the
same magnitude that a freely falling rock attains after falling 1 ft. Similarly, at openings 4 ft and
8 ft below the water surface, the velocity of the spouting water will be 16.04 and 22.68 ft/s,
respectively. Thus, the velocity of water leaving an opening under a given head, h, is the same as
the velocity that would be attained by a body falling that same distance.

The equation that shows how velocity changes with h and defines velocity head is:

V= 2 gh (2-12)

2-5