CROPROT 1

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PROTECTION

1st SEMESTER AY 2021-2022

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CatSU College of Agriculture and Fisheries

Contact Details
Catanduanes State Colleges
College of Agriculture and Fisheries

Engr. Jhomann U. Socito Charlote Francia D. Camacho Antonette A. Villanueva

Assist. Professor 1 Instructor 1 Instructor 1
09 09560597997 09
@gmail.com camachocharlotefrancia@gmail.com @gmail.com

Hanna T. Romero Myra Joy Tumpang John Wil V. Quintal

Instructor 1 Instructor 1 Instructor 1
09 09 09
@gmail.com @gmail.com @gmail.com

Charlene Mae S. Tindugan

Instructor 1
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@gmail.com

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CROP PROTECTION 1. PRINCIPLES OF CROP PROTECTION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PATHOLOGY PAGE
OVERVIEW 4
LEARNING OUTCOMES 4
DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS 5
Introduction 6
CHAPTER I
Lesson 1. Plant Pathology(defined) 6
Lesson 2. Concepts of plant diseases 10
Lesson 3. Causes of plant diseases 12
Lesson 4. Concepts of plant diseases 19
Lesson 5. Disease cycle 32
Lesson 6. Plant-disease epidemiology (elements of an epidemic) 34
Lesson 7. Variability in plant pathogens 35
Reference 38

WEED SCIENCE
OVERVIEW 39
LEARNING OUTCOMES 39
DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS 40
Introduction 41
CHAPTER II
Lesson 1. Weed science (definition), concept of a weed 41
Lesson 2. Characteristics and classification of weeds 43
Lesson 3. Weeds, crop and other pest 49
Lesson 4. Effect of weeds on human affairs 57
Lesson 5. Reproduction and establishment of weeds 59
Lesson 6. Crop and weed competition 63
Lesson 7. Change in weed competition 65
Reference 68
SUMMATIVE TEST 69

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CROP PROTECTION 1. PRINCIPLES OF CROP PROTECTION PLANT PATHOLOGY

CHAPTER 1

PLANT PATHOGEN

OVERVIEW

This learning material discusses CROPPROT 1 – Principles of Crop Protection. The content of this is
focused on the Plant Pathogen and its sub topics. The concepts, figures, tables and other facts
incorporated in this learning material are borrowed from various materials and re-organized into concise
body guided by the course outcomes-based syllabus.

To facilitate learning, a pre-test was designed to determine the students’ level of knowledge on the
topic. This was followed by a detailed lesson and discussion provided with examples taken from various
sources to facilitate students’ learning. Moreover, self-assessment questions/activities were
incorporated at the end of each topic for evaluation.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lecture, the student is expected to:

1. Define plant pathology and understand its meaning.

2. Identify invertebrate organisms, fungi, bacteria and the effects of viruses that may cause damage to
plants.
3. Identify the causes of plant diseases.
4. Understand the biology of a range of pests and diseases that are potentially harmful to normal plant
growth.

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CROP PROTECTION 1. PRINCIPLES OF CROP PROTECTION PLANT PATHOLOGY

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

The following terms together with its definition will be used in the entire chapter.

 Aggressiveness – measures the rate at which virulence is expressed by a given pathogenic

isolate
 Disease resistance – inherent ability of an organism to overcome in any degree the effects of
a pathogen.
 Facultative parasite – an organism, which has the ability to become a parasite but is ordinarily
a saprophyte
 Facultative saprophyte – has the ability to become a saprophyte but is ordinarily a parasite
 Host – refers to the plant that is being attacked by a parasite. A food relationship between the
host and the parasite e is implied
 Masked symptoms – symptoms not expressed due to unfavourable condition.
 Obligate parasite – subsist on living organisms and attacks only living tissues (ex. Virus, rust
fungi, downy mildew fungi, etc.)
 Parasite – an organism that depends wholly or partly on another organism for its food
 Pathogen – any agent that causes disease especially the biotic or living agent
 Pathogenecity – is the capacity of an organism to cause disease.
 Pathogenesis – refers to series of events that lead to disease development in the plant.
 Plant disease diagnosis – defined as identification of diseases based on symptoms and signs
 Sign – a pathogen or a part of a pathogen fond on a host
 Saprophyte – an organism that lives on dead organic or inorganic matter
 Suscept – is a plant that is susceptible to a disease whether or not the pathogen is parasitic.
 Susceptibility – opposite of resistance; the inability to overcome the effects of a pathogen.
 Symptom – manifestation or expression of a plant as a result of a disease; evidences of
disease in the plant
 Symptom complex – different symptoms exhibited by the plant
 Symptomless carrier - host that do not show symptom irrespective of environment.
 Syndrome – symptom + sign
 Tolerance – ability of plant to withstand the severe effects of the pathogen without experiencing
a severe reduction in yield.
 Virulence – refers to the quantitative amount of disease that an isolate (the pathogen) can
cause in a group of plants. A characteristic of a pathogen.

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LESSON 1.
PLANT PATHOLOGY

Introduction

Life-history is a key concept in evolutionary biology and ecology. It corresponds to the narrative of the
various events punctuating the existence of an organism from his birth to his death (Begon et al., 2006;
Michalakis et al., 2016). Throughout life, living organisms acquire resources that they actively find or
extract from their environment and then allocate to different functions: development, survival,dispersal
and reproduction (Roff, 1992; Stearns, 1992; Michalakis, 2009). Traits involved in the timing and
amplitude of these allocation dilemmas are defifined as life history traits. Life-history traits are often
determinant for individuals (Kingsolver and Pfennig, 2007). They influence spatial and temporal disease
dynamics, and thus the genetic diversity and structure of pathogen populations (Barrett et al., 2008;
Michalakis et al., 2016). These determinants are involved in the ability of pathogens to adapt to varying
ecological factors including changes in the biotic and abiotic effect, but also direct or indirect interactions
with other strains or species of pathogens co-occurring on the same host (Michalakis et al., 2016;
Tollenaere et al., 2016).

Understanding processes maintaining variation in plant pathogen life history traits is a central question
in evolutionary ecology and a major challenge for the design of disease control strategies (Galvani,
2003; Grenfell et al., 2004).

LESSON 1. PLANT PATHOLOGY

Phytopathology or plant pathology deals with the nature causes, and control of plant
diseases. It is a science which looks into the characteristics of diseases, their causes, plant-pathogen
interactions, factors affecting disease development in individual interactions, factors affecting disease
development in individual plants and in populations, and various means of controlling diseases.

Plant pathology or phytopathology is the science, which deals with the plant diseases. It is
concerned with health and productivity of growing plants. Phytopathology (Greek Phyton= Plant +
pathos = disease, ailments, + logos= discourse, knowledge) is the branch of agricultural, botanical
science which deals with the cause, etiology, resulting in losses and management methods of plant
diseases.

The art of plant pathology deals with the application of the knowledge gained from studying the
science. This includes:

(a) diagnosis or recognizing particular diseases by their symptoms and signs,

(b) disease assessment and forecasting,
(c) recommendation of appropriate control measures and
(d) field application of suitable control measures.

The raison d’etre and ultimate objective of plant pathology is to prevent or minimize plant
diseases not only to increase food production but also to maintain the quantity and quality of harvested
fresh commodity until it reaches the consumer. We also need to protect and preserve plants used for
‘fibers, drugs aesthetics”.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLANT PATHOLOGY

 Pre-scientific Period

Diseases of plants have caused devastations since time immemorial. Fossil fungi which are about two
billion years old have been found in pre-Cambrian charts. Some fossil sea creatures were found to
contain fragments of pathogenic fungi, similar to those existing today. Fossils of primitive gymnosperms
contained fruiting bodies of fungi unlike those that now parasitize old coniferous trees.

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LESSON 1.
PLANT PATHOLOGY

a. Fossil records
b. Bible -Old Testament
c. Great Philosophers-Aristotle, Homer, Theophrastus

 Superstitious beliefs rampant

 Greeks and Hebrews (500 B.C. to 280 B.C.) –diseases as punishment for their sins, due to bad
weather and unfavorable soil conditions.
 Theophrastus (370-286 B.C.) “Father of Botany” recorded many diseases in his book “Hi
storia plantarum”.
 The Romans (320 B.C. to 475 A.D. held an annual festival “Robigalia” to placate the rust God
Robigus and Robigo.
 Pliny the Elder, a Roman philosopher wrote about blights and rust in “Historia naturalis”.
 875 A.D. Ergot epidemic in Europe. The disease called Holy Fire or St. Anthony’s firewas
believed as a punishment for man’s sins.
 Devoid of scientific experiment that led to incorrect interpretations.

BEGINNINGS AND ADVANCES IN SCIENTIFIC STUDIES:

 1605 Sir Francis Bacon –advocated inductive reasoning (from specific to general)
 17th to 19th century-Tournefort, Zallinger, Fabricus and Unger classified diseases.
 Franz Unger-“Autogenetic Theory of Disease” or “Theory of Spontaneous Generation”. When
plants are in the declining phase, the cellular constituents call forth new forms of life by a vital
force. The pathogen is the result and not the cause of disease.
 Credit for the first microscope is usually given to Zacharias Janssen in Middleburg, Holland,
around the year 1595.
 1665-Hooke first to see plant cells and plant pathogenic microscopic fungus
 Hooke improved on early compound microscopes around 1660. In Micrographia (1665), he
coined the word “cell” to describe the features of plant tissue (cork from the bark of an oak
tree) he was able to discover under the microscope. He put his extensive mathematical
knowledge in formulating the theory of planetary movement, which provided a basis for Sir
Isaac Newton's theories of gravitation.
 1683-Leeuwenhoek made simple (one lens) microscopes. He was not the first person to build
a microscope, but the microscopes that he did build were the best ones for that time period.
Leeuwenhoek was the first person to describe bacteria (from teeth scrapings), protozoans (from
pond water), helped to prove the theory of blood circulation. He gained much of his inspiration
from reading Hooke's Micrographia.
 Beginnings of “Germ theory”-Living things must come from living parents.
 Germ theory of disease-microorganism causes disease; not the effect of disease
 1729-Pier Antonio Michelli described many genera of fungi. Convinced that fungi arose from
their own spores.
 1755-Tillet noted that dust from smutted wheat mixed with healthy seed, resulted in smutted
wheat plants.
 1766 Targioni-Tozzetti and Fontana 1767 studied cereal rust; concluded that rust fungi
associated with plants caused the disease.
 1743-Needham observed nematodes in wheat kernels

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PLANT PATHOLOGY-ETIOLOGICAL PERIOD

 1853-Heinrich Anton de Bary-Father of Plant Pathology

 1878-1883-Thom “Apple and pear blight-Erwinia amylovora”
 Collected sap from infected twigs; saw bacteria under the microscope.
 Inoculated healthy plants with sap from infected twigs. Reproduced blight symptoms
 First to propose that bacteria can also cause disease in plants as Jonathan Burrill

VIRUSES AS PLANT PATHOGENS

 1886-Mayer found that tobacco mosaic can be reproduced by inoculating sap of diseased plant
to healthy plant.

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LESSON 1.
PLANT PATHOLOGY

 1892-Ivanowski –demonstrated the filterable nature of the causal agent of tobacco mosaic.
 1898-Beijerinck –coined the name virus
 1935-Bawden crystallized TMV; crystal can reproduce the disease if inoculated to healthy
plants; made-up of protein and nucleic acid

PHYTOPLASMAS- FORMERLY MLOS (MYCOPLASMA-LIKE ORGANISMS)

- 1967-Doi, Terenaka, Yora and Asuyama discovered the assoc. of MLOs in mulberry dwarf,
potato witches broom and aster yellows.
- 1972-Davis, Worley, Whitcomb, Ishiyama and Steere observed motile, helical microorganisms
assoc. with corn stunt disease.
-
VIROIDS AS PLANT PATHOGENS

 Infectious RNA
 Comprise the smallest known agent of infectious plant disease.
 “Cadang cadang” disease of coconut
 Potato spindle tuber disease

OTHER IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES

 1882 Pierre Marie Alexis Millardet discovered an effective fungicide, “Bordeaux mixture”
 1960-start of mycotoxin research because many turkeys died. Aspergillus flavus and A.
parasiticus.
 1963-Vander Plank published the book “Plant Diseases: Epidemics and Control”
 Present era Molecular Plant Pathology (detection of plant pathogens, genetic engineering)
 Information technology

PLANT PATHOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

 1910 first course in Plant Pathology taught as Botany 4 under the Agronomy dept.
 1914-Baker The Lower fungi of the Philippines-A review of Philippine plant diseases
 1917-Department of Plant Pathology was born and course offered as Plant Pathology 1
 1917 Otto Reinking first department head
 1933-Gerardo Ocfemia first Filipino dept. head. “Dean of Filipino Plant Pathologists”
 Batangas coffee (Coffee rust-Hemileia vastatrix1885)
 1908-E. B. Copeland -Coconut bud rot (Phytophthora palmivora)
 1911 Robinson (Corn leaf blight-Helminthosporium maydis
 Downy Mildew of Corn (Perenosclerospora philippinensis)
 Abaca bunchy top 1920-1940 G.O. Ocfemia
 1950-1960 Studies on etiology and control of leaf and seedling diseases
 1950-1960 development program in upgrading staff and physical facilities.
 1963-Philippine Phytopathological Society
 1970-Surveillance and Early Warning Systems established by BPI
 1978-Exconde and co-workers controlled the corn downy mildew by seed treatment.
 1983-Davide developed biological control against nematodes

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LESSON 1.
PLANT PATHOLOGY

SELF-ASSESSMENT 1 (Lesson 1. PLANT PATHOLOGY)

IDENTIFICATION.

Find out what you have learn in this topics by filling the blanks with the appropriate word or words.

1. as a science deals with the nature, causes and control of plant diseases.
2. The art of plant pathology includes or the recognition of particular
diseases by their symptoms and signs.
3. The raison d’etre and ultimate objective of is to prevent or reduce plant
diseases thus increasing our food.
4. The disease fire was believed as a punishment for man’s sins.
5. , a Roman philosopher wrote about blights and rust in “Historia naturalis”.

True or False

6. The first disease to be studied in the country are coffee rust cause by Phytophtora palimovora.
7. The pathogen is the cause and not the result of disease, according to the autogenetic theory
of disease.
8. Bordeaux mixture” was discovered as effective fungicide by Pierre Marie Alexis Millardet.
9. Heinrich Anton de Bary is the Father of Plant Pathology

10. Leeuwenhoek first to see plant c ells and plant pathogenic microscopic fungus.

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LESSON 2.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PLANT DISEASES

LESSON 2. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PLANT DISEASES

It has been said that human beings (as well as other animals) exist on earth
solely as guests of the plant kingdom because only the green plants can convert the energy from the
sun into food. We depend on plants not only for food but also for our clothing and shelter needs and
numerous luxuries. Medicinal plants are sources of drugs. Ornamental plants make up a multi-million
dollar industry. When diseases kill plants, all other forms of life of earth are adversely affected.

 Plant disease epidemics have caused human sufferings, deaths and upheavals.
 Potato late blight disease (1845-1846)
- caused famine and death of more than a million people in Ireland
 Coffee rust in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka)
- destroyed vast coffee plantations; tea was planted instead
 Ergot poisoning in Europe (875 AD)
- acquired from eating bread made from infected rye grains; caused by the fungus Claviceps purpurea
which produces sclerotia containing alkaloids that impede blood circulation.

Diseases are important to humans because damage to plant and plant products, commonly
with an associated economic effect, either positive or negative. Negative economic affect include crop
failure, incremental loss from lower quality or failure to meet market standards, elimination of crop
options because propagule build up, or the costs of control methods. Plant diseases are also
responsible for the creation of new industries to develop control measures.

Disease increase the cost of production and handling. One major input in production is the cost
of controlling disease. In many instances, the application of control is passed on to the consumer, thus
we pay a staggering price for the produce. The cost of culling out diseased commodities for marketing
and processing is another added expense. Paper made from infected and stained wood chips is more
expensive as wood has to be bleached longer to obtain a white paper product.

The importance of the study of plant diseases may be underscored by a quotation from Herbert
H. Whetzel: “For what will profit us if all the ills and diseases of the human race be banished and we
then face starvation because of diseases and pests of our food plants?”

EXAMPLES OF PLANT DISEASES IN THE PHILIPPINES THAT CAUSED ENORMOUS

ECONOMIC LOSSES

1.Cadang-cadang disease of coconut (viroid) – first observed in 1918; have caused the country a
loss of $200 million
2.Downy mildew of corn – the nemesis of corn
- loss can be as high as 95% amounting to over PhP170 million annually
- now controlled by chemical seed treatment using metalaxyl
- caused by the fungus Peronosclerospora philippinensis
3. Rice tungro disease (virus) – affected 70,000 hectares in 1971; 1.22 M cavans, an estimate of rice
lost was valued at PhP30, 357,000
4. Coffee rust – destroyed the coffee industry in Batangas.
5. Citrus decline – destroyed citrus plantations in Batangas.

TYPES OF CROP LOSSES DUE TO PLANT DISEASES

 Reduction in yield
- leaf spots/blights reduce photosynthetic capacity of plants
- root pathogens

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LESSON 2.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PLANT DISEASES

- fruit rots and fruit spots – reduce quantity of harvestable and marketable fruits
 Losses from deterioration during storage, marketing, or transport
- The amount of food lost daily is enough to feed the world’s population
 Reduction in quality of produce
- citrus fruits with scabs
- moldy cereals and other commodities
- reduced strength and undesirable discoloration in wood pulp
- poor germination of infected seeds

 Losses from produce contaminated with toxins that cause various disorders and/or death to animals
including man
 aflatoxin – produced by Aspergillus flavus
- carcinogenic to animals and man
- commonly found in stored corn, sorghum, copra, root crops, etc.
 Ochratoxin – a mycotoxin produced by A. ochraceous
- causes cancer of the liver
 Yellow rice toxins – formed by Penicillium spp.
- caused several deaths in Japan
 estrogenic factor in corn – produced by Fusarium graminearum
- causes testes of young male pigs to enlarge and abort
 Fumonisms – formed by Fusarium spp. In corn grains
- caused esophageal cancer in man and toxic to animals like horses

SELF-ASSESSMENT 2 (Lesson 2. Economic Importance of Plant Diseases)

True or False

1. Potato late blight disease is caused famine and death of more than a million people in Sri Lanka.
2. Ergot poisoning in Europe (875 AD) is caused by the fungus Claviceps purpurea which
produces sclerotia containing alkaloids that facilitate blood circulation.
3. Corn downy mildew is caused by the fungus Peronosclerospora philippinensis
4. Leaf spot can’t reduce photosynthetic ability of plant.
5. Ochratoxin causes cancer of the liver.

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LESSON 3.
CONCEPTS OF PLANT DISEASES

LESSON 3 CONCEPTS OF PLANT DISEASE

 A “physiological malfunctioning caused by animate agents” (Whetzel, 1929). He called

malfunctioning caused by non-living or inanimate agents as “physiogenic disease”.

 “Any deviation from normal growth or structure of plants that is sufficienty pronounced and
permanent to produce visible symptoms or to impair quality or economic value” (Stakman and
Harrar, 1957)

 A “malfunctioning process caused by continuous irritation” (Horsfall and Dimond). The authors
emphasize the difference between disease and injury. A disease progresses over a period of
time while injury is an instantaneous action such as the breaking of a twig.

 “A dynamic interaction between an organism and its environment which results in abnormal
physiological and often morphological or neurological changes in the organism” (Merril, 1980)

 “Any disturbance brought about by a pathogen or an environmental factor which interferes with
manufacture, translocation or utilization of food, mineral nutrients and water in such a way that
the effected plant changes in appearance and yields less than a normal healthy plant of the
same variety” (Agrios, 1978).
 “Any malfunctioning of host cells and tissues that results from continuous irritation by a
pathogen or an environmental factor and leads to the development of symptoms” (Agrios,
1998).
 “Disease is harmful alteration oh normal physiological and biochemical development of a plant.”
( National Academy of Science, Washington, D.C,1968)
 Salient points in most of the definitions of disease are:
a) Presence of physiological disorders that generally detrimental
b) Morphological abnormalities result from the physiological malfunctioning.

Requisites for Disease

Disease development requires the presence of: Suscept Pathogen

1) A susceptible plant Disease
2) Pathogen
3) Favorable environment
Favorable environment
Figure.1 Disease Triangle

SYMPTOMS OF PLANT DISEASES

Symptoms are expressions by the suscept or host of pathologic condition by a particular plant
disease may be distinguished from other diseases.

Classification of Symptoms
1. Local or Systemic Symptoms
 Local symptom – expressed as physiological or structural changes in a limited area of the
tissues of the host (ex. galls, spots, cankers)
 Systemic symptom – expressed as the reaction of a greater part of or all of the plants (ex.
Dwarfing, wilting, yellowing)

2. Primary or Secondary Symptoms (caused by the same disease)

 Primary symptom – the direct result of pathogen activity on the invaded tissues
 Secondary symptom – the physiological effects on distant and uninvaded organs

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LESSON 3.
CONCEPTS OF PLANT DISEASES

3. Microscopic or Macroscopic Symptoms

 Microscopic symptom– expressions of disease in cell structure or arrangement that can be
studied only under the microscope
Examples: abnormality in cell content, structure or arrangement; cell enlargement and vascular
discoloration
 Macroscopic symptom – expressions of the disease in the plant or in its parts that can be
studied with unaided eye.

Types of macroscopic symptom

pre-necrotic – stage preceding death of cells
necrotic – characteristics of dead cells and tissues

GENERAL TYPES OF SYMPTOMS

PLESIONECROTIC SYMPTOMS
 Stage preceding death of cells or pre-necrotic
 It changes before actual death of protoplast or cell
 Involves protoplasmic disorganization and degeneration
Examples: silvering, yellowing, and wilting

NECROTIC SYMPTOM
 Involves the death of protoplast, cells or tissues
Examples: spot blight scorch, canker, and die-back

HYPOPLASTIC SYMPTOMS
 Inhibition or failure in the differentiation/development of some aspect of plant growth
Examples: stunting, chlorosis, mosaic, curling and rosetting

HYPERPLASTIC SYMPTOMS
 Expressed with excessive multiplication, enlargement or overdevelopment of plant organs
 Prolonged retention of green color
Examples: gall formation, scab, knots
Hypertrophy – overdevelopment due to the increase in the size of the cell
Hyperplasia – abnormal increase in the number of cells

PLANT DISEASE DIAGNOSIS

A. Symptoms & diseases

 Abscission – premature falling of leaves, fruits or flowers due to the early laying down of the
abscission layer.
 Blast – term applied to the sudden death of young buds, inflorescence or young fruits.
 Bleeding – flow of plant sap from wounds.
 Blight – an extensive, usually sudden, death of host tissue, such as leaf blight.
 Blotch – large, irregular spots on leaves or fruits with necrotic injury of epidermal cells.
 Callus – an overgrowth of tissue formed in response to injury in an effort of the plant to heal
the wound.
 Canker – an often sunken necrotic area with cracked border that may appear in leaves, fruits,
stems and branches.
 Chlorosis – yellowing caused by some factors other than light, such as infection by a virus or
a mycoplasma.
 Curling – abnormal bending or curling of leaves caused by over-growth on one side of the leaf
or localized growth in certain portions.
 Damping off – rotting of seedlings prior to emergence or rotting of seedling stems at an area
just above the soil line.
 Die-back – a drying backward from the tip of twigs or branches.
 Etiolation – yellowing of normally green tissues caused by inadequate light.

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LESSON 3.
CONCEPTS OF PLANT DISEASES

 Fasciculation or fasciation – clustering of roots, flowers, fruits, or twigs around a common

focus.
 Flecks – extremely tine spots on leaves, fruits, stems, etc.
 Gumming or gummosis – oozing out of viscid gum from wounds in bark.
 Leak – the host’s juices exude or leak out from soft-rotted portions.
 Mosaic – the presence, usually on leaves, of variegated patterns of green and yellow shades
with sharply defined borders.
 Mottling – the variegation is less defined than mosaic and the boundaries of light and dark
variegated areas are more defused.
 Mummification – an infected fruit is converted to a hard, dry shrivelled mummy.
 Phyllody – metamorphosis of sepals, petals, stamens, or carpels into leaf-like structures.
 Pitting – defined depressions or pits are found on the surface of fruits, tubers and other fleshy
organs resulting in a packed appearance.
 Rosetting – shortening of the internodes of shoots and stems forming a crowding of the foliage
in a rosette.
 Rotting – the disintegration and decomposition of host tissues. A dry rots is a firm, dry decay
whereas a soft rot is a soft watery decomposition. Any plant part may suffer from rot such as
fruit rot, stem-end rot, blossom-end rot, stalk rot, root rot, etc.
 Russeting – a superficial brownish roughening of the skin of fruits, tubers or other fleshy organs
usually due to the suberization of epidermal or subepidermal tissues following injury to
epidermis.
 Sarcody – abnormal swelling of the bark above wounds due to the accumulation of elaborated
food materials.
 Savoying – the cupping or pocketing of parts of the leaf; also curling or puckering; due to
underdevelopment of veins of leaf margins.
 Scab – slightly raised, rough, ulcer-like lesions due to the overgrowth of epidermal and cortical
tissue accompanied with rupturing and suberization of cell walls.
 Shot-hole – a perforated appearance of a leaf as the dead areas of local lesions drop out.
 Spot – a localized necrotic area also referred to as a lesion, may be circular, angular or
irregularly shaped. Several spots may run together or coalesce forming large necrotic areas.
 Streak or stripe – long, narrow necrotic lesions on leaves or stems.
 Vein clearing – the leaf veins are translucent or pale while the rest of the leaf is in its normal
color.
 Virescence or greening – development of chlorophyll in tissues or organs where it is normally
absent.
 Wilting – may be due to an infectious agent or to lack of water. Wilting caused by the latter is
often temporary and plant recovers upon the application of enough moisture unless the drought
is prolonged and the plant dies. Wilting by an infectious agent often leads to death of the plant
unless controlled in time.

B. Sign of Plants
 Signs of plant diseases refer to the structures of the pathogen that are found associated with
the infected part.
 Some of these structures may not always be present in diseased plants because their formation
depends on environmental conditions.
 Most of the signs are best seen and distinguished under a microscope.

Three General Categories of Signs

1. Vegetative structures – function primarily in absorption and storage of nutrients.

a. Felt – a densely woven mat of mycelium
b. Haustorium – an absorbing organ of a fungus which penetrates a host cell without
penetrating the plasma membrane
c. Mycelium – a mass of fungal threads or hyphae
d. Pathogen cells – masses of bacterial cells
e. Plasmodium – naked mass of protoplasm
f. Rhizomorph – cordlike strand of fungal hyphae
g. Sclerotium – a hard, compact, resting body composed of fungal hyphae
2. Reproductive structures – those pathogen structures that function in reproduction of the
organism.

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LESSON 3.
CONCEPTS OF PLANT DISEASES

a. Acervulus – a mat of hyphae, generally associated with a host, forming lesions with short
densely packed conidiophores.
b. Apothecium – open, cuplike, ascus-containing fruiting body.
c. Ascus – sac-like structure containing ascosphores formed as a result of karyogamy and
meiosis.
d. Basidium – characteristically club-shaped structure on which basidiospores are produced
as a result of karyogamy and meiosis.
e. Cleistothecium – a closed ascus-containing fruiting body.
f. Conidiophore – a specialized hyphal branch on which conidia are produced.
g. Conk – woody shelf-like structure characteristic of many woody-rotting fungi.
h. Mildew – cobwebby or powdery growth usually on leaves.
i. Mold – wooly of furry surface growth of mycelium.
j. Mushroom (toadstool) – umbrella-shaped fruiting structure of many Basidiomycetes.
k. Perithecium – charatistically flask-shaped, ascus-containing fruiting body with a small
opening (ostiole) and a wall of its own kind.
l. Pseudothecium – fruiting body bearing asci in locules within a stroma.
m. Pycnidium – asexual, hollow fruiting body containing conidia.
n. seed-bearing plants – higher plants that parasitize trees.
o. Sorus – mass or cluster of spores borne on short stalks.
p. Sporangium – enlarged tip of specialized hyphal branch in which sporangiospores are
borne.
q. Spore – general name for a single to several celled propagative unit in fungi and other lower
plants. Examples of spores with specific names are: conidia, ascospores, basidiospores,
zoospores, oospores, sporangiospores, aeciospores, urediospores, chlamydospores and
teliospores.
r. Sporodochium – cushion-shaped stroma covered with conidiophores.
s. Stroma – compact mass of fungal hyphae on or within which fruiting structures are formed.
t. Worms – generally nematodes which are microscopic, wormlike animals that can cause
disease.

3. Disease products – gases and exudation products resulting from disease.

a. Odor – characteristic smell associated with some host-pathogen interactions.
b. Ooze- viscid mass made up of plant juices and often pathogen cells.

Signs of fungal diseases – mycelia, spores, fruiting bodies, etc.

Signs of bacterial diseases – bacterial cells, bacterial ooze
Signs of nematode diseases – eggs, juveniles, adult nematodes
Signs of virus diseases – virus particles, inclusion bodies
Signs of viroid diseases – RNA fragments
Signs of diseases caused by parasitic flowering plants – seeds and the plant itself.

C. Koch’s Postulate
 Criteria used to confirm the identity of the causal agent of a new or unknown disease.
 It is a set of rules used to prove the pathogenicity of facultative parasites

Step 1: Association – the pathogen or signs of the pathogen must be found associated with the disease
in all diseased plants examined.
Step 2: Isolation – the pathogen must be isolated and grown in pure culture on nutrient media, and its
characteristics described. Obligate parasites must be isolated and grown on a healthy but susceptible
host plant. The characteristics of the obligate parasite must also be described.
Step 3: Inoculation – the pathogen from the pure culture must be inoculated on healthy plants of the
same species or variety on which the disease appears, and it must produce the same disease on the
inoculated plants
Step 4: Re-isolation – the pathogen must be re-isolated from the inoculated plants and grown once
more in pure culture. Its characteristics must be exactly like those observed in steps 1 and 2.

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LESSON 3.
CONCEPTS OF PLANT DISEASES

SAMPLE IMAGES OF SYMPTOMS OF PLANT DISEASES

RICE BLAST BROWN SPOT POTATO SCAB

CALLUS VEIN CLEARING VIRESCENCE

CANKER CURLING MUMMIFICATION

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LESSON 3.
CONCEPTS OF PLANT DISEASES

SELF-ASSESSMENT 3. CONCEPT OF PLANT DISEASES

True or false
1. According to Whetzel(1929), a malfunctioning caused by animate agents is “physiogenic
disease”, and malfunctioning caused by non-living or inanimate agents is “physiological disease”.
False
2. Hypertrophy is the overdevelopment due to the increase in the size of the cell.
3. Hyperplasia is the abnormal increase in the number of cells.
4. Disease development requires a susceptible plant, favourable environment and a pathogen.
5. Disease can be developed without favourable environment.

Find out and underline the word which refers or describes the word from the parentheses.
(ex. 1. Pathogen (Parasite, environment, suscept)

6. Sign ( Symptoms, Structure, Disease)

7. Virescence ( Yellowing, Rotting, Greening)
8. Obligate parasite ( Virus, saprophytic, bacteria)
9. Symptoms (Sign, Yellowing, Mycelium)
10. Chlorosis ( Yellowing, Greening, Rotting)

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LESSON 3.
CONCEPTS OF PLANT DISEASES

ACTIVITY 1.

CONCEPT OF PLANT DISEASES

INTRODUCTION:

The term plant disease refers to impairment in the structure or function of a plant that result in
observable symptoms. Diagnosis is the identification of specific plant diseases their symptoms and
signs including other factors that may be related to disease process.

Symptoms are expressions by the suscept or host of pathologic condition by a particular plant
disease may be distinguished from other diseases However, diagnosis based on symptoms is not a
very reliable means of identifying particular disease since it some diseases exhibit the same symptoms
although their pathogens may be very different. (Symptoms alone is not enough to determine the
disease of the plant; hence a structured diagnostic process is recommended, however this activity aims
to facilitate additional learning by letting the students identify and familiarize the different symptoms
expressed by a diseased plant).

OBJECTIVE:

To identify plants with abnormalities/ deviation.

MATERIALS:

- Bond Paper
- Pen
- Phone (Camera)

METHODOLOGY:

1. Go out of your house and observe some plants.

2. Look for some plants with abnormalities.
3. Take a picture of the certain plants with abnormalities.
4. Label it. (Plant (English Name, Scientific Name, and Local Name), affected plant part, location,
and observation (base on your assessment, indicate the assumed symptom of the plant).
(Note: Scientific name (genus and species), the first letter of the genus must be in capital letter
and the rest are in small letter, also in italic form. (ex. Oryza sativa))
5. Give at least 5 plant with abnormalities.

Ex.
English name: Rice
Scientific name: Oryza sativa
Common name: Palay
Affected plant part: leaves
Observation: Brown spots are visible from the
leaves.
Location: San Andres, Catanduanes

Note: Look for an actual diseased plant in your

area not from the internet.

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LESSON 4.
CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASES

LESSON 4 CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASES

Plant diseases are caused by different factors. The two main categories are listed here.

A. ABIOTIC/NON-PARASITIC/ NON-LIVING FACTORS

- Plants can grow normally only within certain ranges of various environmental factors such as
light, temperature, moisture, air, nutrients, etc. The inadequacy or the excess of one or more of
these factors leads to changes in the normal functioning of the plant and thus disease occurs.
- The non-parasitic agents of diseases are characteristically non-living and therefore are not
spread from diseased to healthy plants. The diseases that they cause are non-infectious. Non-
infectious diseases are recognized by their symptoms (no signs are present). A knowledge of
soil conditions, temperature ranges, the weather immediately before and during disease
occurrence, and other environmental factors are often necessary for correct diagnosis. Proper
diagnosis is very difficult when multiple environmental factors are involved in disease
development.
- Diseases caused by non-parasitic agents have been also referred to as physiological disorders.
Plants are weakened or stressed by biotic agents of diseases are more prone to infection by
parasitic pathogens.

Common non-parasitic causes of diseases in plants are:

A. DISEASES CAUSED BY ADVERSE PHYSICAL FACTORS

DISEASES CAUSED BY TOO LOW TEMPERATURES

Freezing Injury
This is common in temperate and frigid areas where temperatures get down to below 0C,
caused by ice crystals that forms within the cells (intracellularly) and/or between cells (intercellularly).
These crystals damage the cell membrane and eventually kill the cells.

Chilling Injury
Chilling injury occurs at low temperatures that are slightly above freezing. The common
symptoms of this disease are pitting and water-soaked appearance. (Green tomatoes that are chilled
in refrigerator are predisposed to infection by Aternaria rot and anthracnose.

DISEASES CAUSED BY TOO HIGH TEMPERATURES

Temperatures that are too high for normal growth cause physiological disorders by inhibiting or
inactivating systems. They also cause protein denaturation and coagulation, disruption of cell
membranes, and eventual death of cells. Damage by high temperatures is increases several-fold by
lack of moisture and by too intense light.

Sunscald
Sunscald appears on leaves or fruits that undergo prolonged exposure to high temperatures
and bright sunlight. Affected fruits exhibited a light colored, blistered, sometimes water soaked area.
Very young leaves often wilt and die.

Heat necrosis of potato

This occurs in potatoes grown in light soils where it is hot and dry. It is characterized by a yellow
or brown discoloration in the vascular system affected tubers.

DISEASES CAUSED BY LACK OF OXYGEN

The blackheart disease of potato occurs when oxygen is insufficient so that the oxygen that is
available to the internal tissues of potato is used up to faster than it can be supplied. The tissue

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LESSON 4.
CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASES

suffocates and becomes black. The disease is common in waterlogged soils and in poorly aerated
storage areas especially during periods of high temperature.

Disease caused by too much or little light

Reduced light intensity produces plants that are etiolated. This increases their susceptibility to
infection by non-obligate parasites but decreases their susceptibility to obligately parasitic fungi.
Reduced light often brings about increased susceptibility to virus infections.

Scorching and sunscalding are two diseases caused by too much bright light along with high
temperatures.

Diseases caused by adverse meteorological conditions

Strong winds and heavy rains can cause various disorders. The leaves of plants may be ripped,
torn or water-soaked, and are predisposed to bacterial fungal infections. Entire fields of crops may be
blown down and killed. Lightning injury is quite burned poles. Smaller plants that are struck by lightning
are burned within a circular area and nearby plants are stunted.

B. Air pollutants
Air pollutants that caused the plant diseases are mainly gases and particulates (soot, dust, ashes).
Some of these are produced from factories, smelting and refining plants, automobile exhausts and from
other man-related activities. Air pollutants often inhibit plant growth over an extended period of time
without definite symptoms. Some pollutants are present in sufficiently high concentrations. Acute
damage is a function of the concentration times the period of exposure.

The more common air pollutants are:

1. Ethylene- unique pollutant. It is an essential plant hormone if present in the proper
concentration at the right time but causes premature senescence, etiolation, stunting,
flower drop, sepal necrosis, leaf malformations and other symptoms if present at high
concentration and/or at the wrong stage of plant development.
2. Nitrogen Oxides- produced by the combustion of coal, gasoline, natural gas and fuel
oil. The symptoms of acute injury from nitrogen dioxide (NO2) include bleaching and
bronzing of plants as well as formation of defined irregular brown or white lesions
along leaf margins and between veins.
3. Peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs) – nitrogen oxides undergo a photochemical reaction with
gaseous hydrocarbons to form ozone and PANs. PANs plasmolyze the spongy
mesophyll cells and the lower epidermal cells which is followed by dehydration and
filling up of the empty space with air. This produces the bronzing, silvering and glazing
on the lower leaf surfaces, a typical of the silver leaf disease.
4. Ozone- another major constituent of smog. Symptoms of ozone damage include
watersoaked spots on leaves and black flecks along veinlet which eventually bleach
out in tobacco as well as leaf-tip chlorosis and necrosis in conifers.
5. Particulates- pollutant particulates include lime and cement dusts, ash and soot. The
sources of particulates are burning fields or trash cement factories, lime kiln
operations and combustion of fuel oil and coal. They cause necrotic lesions where
they alight on leaf surfaces. Leaves that are fully covered by particulates may die and
fall off. This may be controlled with the use of electrostatic precipitators at the source.

C. Diseases caused by the mineral deficiencies

Different plants vary in their requirements but generally requirements but they generally require
relatively larger amounts of the macro elements ( N, P, K, Ca, S, Mg) and smaller amounts of the
macroelements (Fe, Mn, S, Cu, Mo, Cl).

D. Diseases caused by excesses of nutrient elements

Excessively high levels of certain elements affect the solubility and availability of other
elements. A high calcium level reduces the availability of manganese and iron. Too much nitrogen
causes a luxuriant vegetative growth. Excess boron causes necrosis and dwarfing. Excess copper

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LESSON 4.
CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASES

result in stunting or even death of the plant. Sodium toxicity causes dwarfing of plants. Excess chloride
causes burning of leaf margins and bronzing and premature defoliation.
E. Diseases caused by improper agricultural practices
F. Diseases causes by naturally occurring toxic chemicals

B. BIOTIC/ LIVING/ PARASITIC FACTORS

The parasitic agents that cause infectious diseases of plants are virus, viroids, bacteria, fungi,
nematodes, mollicutes, parasitic flowering plants, insects, protozoa and a few other minor parasites.
 Caused by the parasitic organisms that spread from diseased to healthy plants.
 Recognized by their symptoms and signs.
 Managed by destroying or removing the parasitic agents.

Parasitic organisms. The common parasitic organisms are:

1. VIRUS
 Viruses are obligate parasites that are ultramicroscopic composed of nucleic acid (either
RNA or DNA) core surrounded by a protein coat.
 Viruses may be spherical (isometric or polyhedral), bacilliform, cylindrical, bullet-shaped,
elongate rod-shaped or flexible filaments.
 Bacteriophages are virus that attack bacteria.
 Satellite virus is one that has to be associated with an autonomous virus before it can
cause infection or replicated in the host plant.

Identification of virus
The precise identification of specific plant necessitates their extraction from the host
and subsequent purification.

Viruses replicate only in host cells

 Viruses lack metabolic enzymes and equipment for making proteins, such as ribosomes.
 They are merely packaged sets of genes in transit from one host cell to another.
 Each particular virus can infect cells of only a limited number of host species, called the host
range of the virus. This host specificity results from the evolution of recognition systems by the
virus.
 Viruses usually identify host cells by “lock-and-key” fit between viral surface proteins and
specific receptor molecules on the outside of cells.

 Components:
- protein coat (capsid)
- provide a protective sheath for the nucleic acid
- facilitate movement of virus from cell to cell
- for transmission of viruses
- determines the kinds of symptoms it causes
- nucleic acid – infective component
 Most plant viruses have single-stranded RNA genomes
 Satellite virus – a virus that must be associated with an autonomous virus before it can cause
infection
 Bacteriophages – viruses that attack bacteria

Common symptoms of viral infection

 One or more symptoms may appear on diseased plants.
 Virus infected plants are generally stunted; the yield is less and the produce is of poor quality.
 A plant may appear healthy without apparent external symptoms though infected by a virus.
 The common viral symptoms are:
- mosaic, stunting, ring spot, chlorosis, excessive branching-witches’ broom, leaf curling, vein
clearing, color breaking.

Entry of virus into plants

 Virus enters through wounds made mechanically or by vectors (horizontal transmission)

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LESSON 4.
CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASES

 Virus enters by deposition into an ovule of an infected pollen grain (vertical transmission). It
can also occur in asexual propagation or in sexual reproduction via seeds.

Means of virus transmission

 Infected pollen, seeds and other planting materials
 Grafting
 Mechanical
 Via vectors
- nematodes
- soil-borne fungi
- mites
- insects – these are the major means of virus
spread

Virus-vector relationship
1. Non-persistent (stylet-borne) – transmit the virus within seconds or minutes after acquisition
then losses the ability to transmit it
2. Semi-persistent (foregut-borne) – viruses can stay in the vector for days
3. Persistent – insect transmits the virus after a latent period has elapsed after acquisition; vector
capable of transmission for days
a. stylet-borne – for viruses that adhere to and are borne on stylet of an insect that feeds on
infected plant
b. circulative – viruses are swallowed by an insect, passed thru the blood and are returned to
the salivary glands before they can be transmitted by the insect
c. propagative – viruses multiply in the body of the vector. Transmission may take hours to
days after acquisition but once infective, it can transmit the virus for life

Methods of identifying viruses

1. Transmission studies using indicator hosts (local lesion hosts)
2. Electron microscopy – for virus morphology (size and shape)
3. Serological tests – for virus relationships; done by mixing antibodies with an antigen. Example:
ELISA - enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
4. Microscopy for the presence of inclusion bodies in young infected tissues
5. Symptomatology and host range

ELISA – is a test that uses antibodies and color change to identify a substance
 It uses a solid-phase enzyme immunoassay (EIA) to detect the presence of a substance,
usually an antigen, in a liquid sample or wet sample.
 Antigens from the sample are attached to a surface.
 Then, a further specific antibody is applied over the surface so it can bind to the antigen. This
antibody is linked to an enzyme.
 Finally, a substance containing the enzyme’s substrate is added.
 The subsequent reaction produces a detectable signal, most commonly a color change in the
substrate.

6. Physical properties
a. Thermal inactivation point (tip) – exposure of the viruses for 10 minutes to a specific temperature;
the lowest temperature at which virus is inactivated
b. longevity of the virus in vitro (liv)
c. dilution end point (dep) – the dilution of a virus in crude extract at which it can still cause infection

Control of virus diseases

1. Preventive measures – key to control of virus diseases
a. Quarantine
b. Certification
c. Use of virus-free seeds and planting materials
2. Eradicative measures
a. rouging and destruction of infected plants

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LESSON 4.
CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASES

b. cut and burn diseased plants

c. hot water treatment of plant propagative organs – the temperature must inactivate the virus
but should not destroy host tissues
3. Protective measure
a. control of vectors – nematodes and insects
4. cross-protection – inoculation of healthy plant with a mild strain of a virus to protect it from infection
of a more virulent strain that can cause a more severe symptom
5. Genetic engineering – confers resistance through the introduction of the pathogen’s coat protein
gene – interferes with the infection process
6. Early detection and subsequent destruction of infected plants.

2. VIROIDS

 These are circular RNA molecules, only a few hundred nucleotides long, that infect plants.
 They do not encode proteins but can replicate in host plant cells using host cell enzymes.
 These small RNA molecules seem to cause errors in the regulatory systems that control plant
growth.
 The typical signs of viroid diseases are abnormal development and stunted growth.
 One viroid disease, called CADANG-CADANG, has killed more than 10 million coconut palms
in the Philippines

Characteristics of viroids

 Stable “naked (no protein coat)” RNA that infect plant

 Smaller than viruses
 Closely associated with nuclei of infected cells especially the chromatin
Symptoms of viroid-infected plants
1. Yellowing of leaves – cadang-cadang disease of coconut
2. Stunting – chrysanthemum stunt disease
3. Rolling and twisting of leaves – potato spindle tuber
4. Mottling and chlorosis – chrysanthemum chlorotic mottle
5. Vertical breaking of bark – Citrus exocortis

Transmission and spread of viroids:

 Through infected sap in contaminated tools and hands or by alighting and chewing insects
 Through vegetative propagating materials

Control of viroids:
 Prevention is the best means to control viroids
 Generally resistant to heat. Hot water treatment is not applicable
a. Thorough washing and disinfestations of tools used in handling infested plants
b. Use of viroid-free seedlings and other planting materials
c. Early detection and destruction of infected plants

3. BACTERIA
 General characteristics:
 Prokaryotic microorganisms; largest group; no well-defined nucleus and nuclear membrane
 Typically one-celled
 Have unit membrane and rigid cell wall
 Reproduce asexually by binary fission
 Some with plasmids
- extracellular, closed, circular genetic components
- Self-replicating; can be integrated into the bacterial chromosomes and replicated with it
- Cells may express new genetic characteristics through plasmids
 Advantages imparted by plasmids to bacteria:
- Carry determinants for: drug resistance, phage resistance, UV resistance, survival in
secondary habitats, and for pathogenesis
 shapes:

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LESSON 4.
CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASES

- Spherical (cocci)
- Rod-shaped (bacilli)
- Spiral-shaped (spirilla)
- Some rods and spirilla possess flagella

Types of flagellation:
a. Monotrichous
b. Lophotrichous
c. Amphitrichous
d. Peritrichous

Characteristics of plant pathogenic bacteria:

 Most plant pathogenic bacteria are:

- rod-shaped
- Aerobic
- Flagellated
- Gram negative
- Non-spore forming
 Exceptions
- Streptomyces spp. - filamentous like a mold but their biochemical and physiological properties like
bacteria
- Genus Corynebacterium is Gram positive
- Clostridia is anaerobic and spore-forming
-
Gram staining
 Developed by the 19th century Danish physician Hans Christian Gram.
 Used to categorize many bacterial species according to differences in cell wall composition.
 Samples are first stained with crystal violet dye and iodine, then rinsed in alcohol, and finally
stained with a red dye such as safranin.
 The structure of a bacterium’s cell wall determines the staining response.
 Gram-positive bacteria have simpler walls with a relatively large amount of peptidoglycan.
 Gram-negative bacteria have less peptidoglycan and are structurally more complex, with an
outer membrane that contains lipopolysaccharides (carbohydrates bonded to lipids).

Genera and specie of plant pathogenic bacteria

 There used to be only 5 major genera:
- Pseudomonas, Xanthomonas, Agrobacterium, Corynebacterium, Erwinia
-
Acetobacter Curtobacterium Rhizobacter
Acidovorax Enterobacter Rhodoccocus
Agrobacerium Erwinia Sphingomonas
Arthrobacter Gluconobacter Serratia
Bacillus Nocardia Spiroplasma
Brenneria Pantoea Streptomyces
Burkholderia Pectobacterium Xanthomonas
Clavibacter Pseudomonas Xylella
Clostridium Ralstonia Xyliphillus
Corynebacterium Rathayibacter

Symptoms caused by bacteria:

1. leaf-spot – examples: Xanthomonas campestris pv.vesicatoria (leaf spot of tomato and pepper)
- Pseudomonas syringae pv. Mori (leaf pot of mulberry)
2. soft-rot – example: Pectobacerium carotovorum subsp. carotovorum (bacterial soft rot of vegetables)
3. Blight – examples: Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci (tobacco wildfire)
- Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. dieffenbachiae (bacterial blight of anthurium)
- Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (bacterial leaf blight of rice)

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LESSON 4.
CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASES

4. Gall – due to hypertrophy and hyperplasia of meristematic and parynchematous tissues. Example:
Agrobacterium tumefaciens (crown gall of roses)
5. Canker – phloem and parenchyma tissues become sunken, dry and die. Example: Xanthomonas
axonopodis pv. citri (citrus canker)
6. Wilting – a result of vascular disorders; bacteria multiply and block normal flow of water. Examples:
Ralstonia solanacearum (wilt of solanaceous and non-solanaceous plant)
- Pantoea stewartii subsp. stewartii (bacterial wilt of corn)
7. Scab
8. Chlorosis
9. Streak – Example: Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola (bacterial leaf streak of rice)

Control of bacterial diseases

1. Cultural – sanitation to reduce inoculum levels; crop rotation for bacterial pathogens that do not
have a wide host range; proper watering and drainage to inhibit infection and disease.
2. Seed treatment – soak seeds in weak acid solution or sodium hypochlorite
3. Use antibiotics – examples are streptomycin, oxytetracycline. Disadvantage would be bacteria
soon develop resistance to chemicals
4. Use resistant cultivars

MOLLICUTES
 Characteristics:
 Prokaryotic
 No cell wall but have a unit plasma membrane; 9-12 nm thick
 Pleomorphic – due to absence of cell wall, hence, sensitive to osmotic change
 Contain both RNA and DNA
 Pathogenic on plants, arthropods, other animals including man
 Cause diseases in plants in several ways:
a. blocking translocation in the phloem
b. interfering with plants’ hormonal balance
 Common symptoms of plant diseases caused by mollicutes:
- yellows
- phyllody
- virescence
- stunting
- production of axillary shoots and adventitious roots
 Resistant to penicillin but sensitive to tetracycline and chloramphenicol

Transmission of Mollicutes
 By insect vectors
 Mainly by leafhoppers, planthoppers, psyllids
 Insect acquire the mollicutes in the phloem sieve tubes of the plant
 Incubation period from acquisition of feeding: 10-45 days
 Mechanical transmission
e.g. budding and grafting

Diseases caused by Mollicutes

 1967 – Doi and co-workers observed mollicutes to be associated with aster yellows, mulberry
dwarf and potato witches’ broom.
 Example of disease:
- lethal yellowing of coconut trees – phytoplasma causes death of flowers and leaves; blight
kills trees in 6 months or less.
- citrus stubborn disease – spiroplasma affects leaves, fruits and stems; stunting, die-back,
bunchy growth of twigs and branches, mottling, leaf chlorosis.
- corn stunt – spiroplasma causes leaf chlorosis, stunting, and bunchy top appearance

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LESSON 4.
CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASES

Management of Diseases caused by Mollicutes

1. Use of resistant cultivars or hybrids
2. Proper control of insect vectors
3. Use of mollicute-free planting materials
4. Eradication of alternative hosts – example: weeds
5. Use of tetracycline antibiotic – if economically feasible and no danger of residue on edible plant
parts
6. Sanitation – cutting and burning diseased plant parts during early stages of infection

4. NEMATODES
 Etymology: Greek words:
“nema/nematos” = thread
“edos” = resembling or likeness

CHARACTERISTICS
 thread-like unsegmented worms which are usually elongated and cylindrical in shape
 May be saprophagous, predaceous or plant-parasitic depending on their sources of food
 Saprophagous nematodes – feed on other nematodes and on other minute animals
 Phytonematology – deals with nematodes that parasitize plants
 Tubatrix aceli – wheat gall nematode; the first plant parasitic nematode described
 Caenorhabdilisi elegans – used as a model organism for genetic and physiological studies
 Plant parasitic nematodes (ppn) – feed on all forms of plant life including seed plant and algae;
some feed on fungi and bacteria
 Mostly are obligate parasites; dependent on the living host for survival as they feed and reproduce
only in their hosts.
 Most ppn have a stylet – a hollow, needle-like spear; others have a modified solid spear.

1. Life Cycle: Zygote – Juvenile Stage – Adult 2nd Juvenile (J2) – the feeding or infective stage
2. Reproductive stage:
a. Amphimixis – mode of reproduction where males are needed
b. Parthenogenesis – mode of reproduction wherein only females are produced and offsprings
are clone of the female
c. Sex reversal – observed in juvenile stage of parthenogenetic species of Meloidogyne during
unfavourable condition

3. Survival Strategy
Dormancy – lowered metabolism
Types of Dormancy
a. Diapause – state of arrested development which persist until specific requirements for
development are satisfied even if favourable condition return
b. Quiescence – spontaneous reversible response to unpredictable unfavourable condition
Egg stage – the survival stage of nematodes

Groups of plant parasitic nematodes

1. According to feeding position
a. Ectoparasites
> feed from the outside and only the stylet enters the plant
> they do not enter the roots
> feed mainly on root hairs and root tips; resulting to roots may form many lateral branches
and stop growing
Ex. The genera Xiphinema, Trichdorous, and Tylenchorynchus
b. Semi endoparasites
> feed by burying the front part of the body into the host cells while the posterior portion
is outside the host

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LESSON 4.
CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASES

Ex. Rotylenchulus reniformis (reniform nemas), Tylenchulus semipenetrans (citrus nemas),

and Helicotylenchus (spiral nemas)
c. Endoparasites
> the entire nematode body enters the plant cells while it feeds
Ex. Meloidogyne (root knot nematode), Heterodera (cyst nematode), and Pratylenchus (lesion
nematode) which feed on the root cortex of many plants)

2. According to movement while feeding

a. migratory
> move from one part of the plant to another portion of the host
> move from the plant to the soil and back
Ex. Radopholous (burrowing nematode), Pratylenchus, Ditylenchus dipsaci (stem and bulb
nematodes), and Aphelenchoides (foliar and seed nematodes)
b. sedentary
> attach themselves to the roots or burrow into the root; in each case they remain
sedentary
Ex. Meloidogyne, Rotylenchulus, and Tylenchulus

STYLET OF NEMATODES
 Is a protrusible in the mouth of nematodes which distinguishes plant parasitic from living forms.
 It is the structure they use for puncturing plant cells and withdrawing their contents.
 Three types:
1. stomato – with distinct cone, shaft and knobs, inside is hallow (Order Tylenchida)
2. Odontostylet – hallow spear (Order Dorylaimida)
3. Onchiostylet – bent solied needle-like stylet (Order Triplonchida)

SAMPLING THEORIES
1. Spatial Distribution – nematode distribution within the field is generally patchy owing to their
small size and slow rate of active movement.
2. Vertical Distribution – refers to the dispersal of nematodes in a soil profile
3. Temporal/seasonal Distribution – influenced by climatic pattern (wet and dry) and availability
* Nematode density is highest during near harvest stage of crop.

EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES
 Motility-dependent/active methods: extract slender and active stages of nematodes
Ex. Baermann funnel and its modification and water incubation method
 Motility-independent/passive methods: extracts even sluggish (slow moving nematodes)
Ex. Wet sieving method (by nematode size)
Maceration sieving (by nematode size)
Elutriation method (by sedimentation difference of nematode and soil profile)
Centifugal flotation (by specific gravity)

NEMATODE DISEASES IMPORTANT IN THE PHILIPPINES

 Slow decline of citrus – Tylenchulus semipenetrans
 Spreading decline of citrus – Radophulus similis
 Toppling disease of banana – Radopholus similis
 Root knot – Meloidogyne spp.
 False root knot – Naccibus spp.
 Ufra disease of rice – Aphelenchoides besseyi
 Rice root knot – Hirschmaniella oryzae
 Yellow dwarf disease of black pepper – Radopholus similis
 Red ring disease of coconut – Radinaphelenchus cocophilus

5. FUNGI
 Characteristics:
 Form a mycelium
 Cell walls contain chitin and glucan

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CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASES

 No chloroplast
 Nutrition: by absorption; heterotrophic; depend upon other living plants for food (food derived
from organic matter)
 Reproduction: usually by means of spores, which are very small seed-like structures
(germinate and produce threadlike filaments through the plant’s natural opening like the
stomates, hydathodes, and lenticels)
 Has a specialized structure, appresorium, used for attachment and penetration to an intact
host
 Has a structure called haustoria which takes food needed for its growth
 Survival: in the form of spores or threadlike parts (mycelia or fruiting bodies) in some dead
parts of plants or decaying materials
 Primary stored carbohydrate: Glycogen

THE FOUR PHYLA WITH PLANT PATHOGENS

1. Phylum CHYTRIDIOMYCOTA
 Have zoospores with one posterior flagellum
 Only member of fungi that form motile cells (zoospores or gametes)
a. Class Chytridiomycetes
ex. Physoderma maydis – causes brown spot of corn
Synchytrium psopocarpi – causes orange galls of winged bean Olpidium brassicae – root
disease of crucifers

2. Phylum ZYGOMYCOTA
 No zoospores
 Have asexual spores in sporangis
 Produce zoospores which are non-motile sexual resting spores
a. Order Mucorales
> Rhizopus – Ex. Rhizopus nigricans, R. stolonifer – causes soft rot of fruits and vegetable
> Mucor
> Choanephora – Ex. Choanephora cucurbitarum – causes soft rot of squash
b. Order Glomales (mycorrhiza)
> Glomus
> Gigaspora

3. Phylum BASIDIOMYCOTA
 The club and mushroom fungi
 Sexual spores called basidiospores or sporadia, are produced externally on one or four-celled
structure called a basidium
a. Order Ustilaginales (the smut fungi)
Ex. Ustilago maydis – causes corn smut
Urocystis cepulae – causes smut of onion
b. Order Uredinales – (the obligate rust fungi)
- attacks mostly leaves and stems; some form swellings and even galls
- most rust fungi are very specialized; attack only certain genera or varieties
Formae speciales
Ex. Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici – attacks wheat only
Puccinia graminis f. sp. hordei – attacks barley only
Pathogenic (physiologic) race – P. f. sp. tritici attacks some varieties of wheat (within crop species)
Examples of rust diseases
Uromyces phaseoli – causes rust of beans
Hemileia vastatrix – causes coffee rust
Puccinia polysora – peanut rust
c. Order Agaricales (mushrooms)

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4 .Phylum ASCOMYCOTA
 The sac fungi
 Produce sexual spores called ascospores in groups of eight within a sac known as ascus
a. Class ARHIASCOMYCETES
b. Class SACCHAROMYCETES – ex. Galactomycetes sp. - causes sour rot of citrus fruits
c. Class PLECTOMYCETES
d. Class PYRENYMYCETES – ex. Claviceps purpurea – causes ergot of rye; Ceratocystis
paradoxa – causes pineapple black rot; Ceratocystis fimbriata – causes root rot of sweet
potato; Magnaporthe grisea – causes rice blasts
e. Class LOCULOASCOMYCETES – ex. Mycosphaerella fijiensis – causes black sigatoka
leafspot of banana; Capnodium sp. – sooty mold fungi on a variety of crops; Blumeria
graminis – causes powdery mildew of grasses
f. Class DISCOMYCETES – ex. Diplocarpon rosae – causes black spot of roses

Teleomorph – the sexual or perfect stage of ascomycetes

Anamorph – the asexual or conidial or imperfect stage

Deuteromycetes or Imperfect Fungi

 The imperfect stage of Phylum Ascomycota
 Sexual reproduction and sexual structures are lacking or unknown
 3 groups of Deuteromycetes or imperfect fungi
1. Hypomycetes – fungi that produce conidia on free conidiophores or groups of conidiophores
a. Alternaria – cause of leaf spots and blights on many crop plants
b. Bipolaries – leaf spots in cereal plants
2. Coelomycetes – fungi that produce acervuli or pycnidia that bear conidia and conidiophores
a. Diplodia – fruit rots
3. Mycelia sterilia –no asexual nor sexual spores
a. Rhizoctonia – rotting of leaves, stems and roots
b. Sclerotium – seed, root and stem rots and seedling diseases

FUNGICIDES
 Kinds of fungicides
1. Protective fungicides – as foliage and fruit sprays or dusts to keep disease causing fungi
from penetrating plants. Ex. Zineb
2. Eradicant fungicides – kills or inhibit fungi after they have penetrated the plants. Ex.
Mercury chloride
3. Protective and eradicant fungicides – controls foliage and fruit diseases; as seed treatment.
Ex. Captan
4. Systemic and curative fungicides – absorbed by roots and distributed within the plants to
control certain diseases; applied to seeds or soil. Ex. Benlate, Apron 35

PARASITIC HIGHER PLANTS

 Classification:
1. Hemiparasites – contains chlorophyll but without roots so it depends on host for water and minerals
Ex.:Parasitic witchweeds (Striga hermonthica)
True mistletoe and leafy mistle, Loranthus sp.
2. True parasites – have little or no chlorophyll and no roots either so entirely dependent on host for
water and minerals
Ex: Dodder, Broomrapes, Bunga ng tubo (Aeginetia indica)

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SELF-ASSESSMENT 4

IDENTIFICATION

1. Virus that attacks bacteria.

2. Feed from the outside and only the stylet enters
the plant.
3. Move from one part of the plant to another
portion of the host.
4. Feed by burying the front part of the body into
the host cells.
5. Feed on other nematodes and on other
minute animals.
6. Depends only on living organisms or tissues.
7. When temperature is below 0 degree Celsius.
8. Below 12.5 degree Celsius
9. Tissues are light-colored and blistered due to
prolonged exposure to high temperature and bright sunlight
10. Essential plant hormone, ripening hormone.

Name the causal agent. (Virus, viroids, fungi, bacteria, nematodes)

11. Bacteriophage
12. Xanthomonas
13. Double or single-stranded RNA or DNA encased in protein structures.
14. Usually identify host cells by “lock-and-key”
15. Multiply by means of spores.
16. Thread-like unsegmented worms which are usually elongated and cylindrical in shape
17. Reproduce asexually by binary fission
18. Lack chlorophyll.
19. Cadang cadang disease
20. No chlorophyll.
21. Smaller than viruses.
22. Aspergillus flavus
23. Their mouth is equipped with a spear or stylet to puncture plant cells.
24. Baermann funnel is one of it’s extraction techniques.
25. Most plant pathogenic are rod-shaped.

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ACTIVITY 2.

CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASES

INTRODUCTION:
Plants can grow normally only within certain ranges of various environmental factors such as
light, temperature, moisture, air, nutrients, etc. The inadequacy or the excess of one or more of these
factors leads to changes in the normal functioning of the plant and thus disease occurs.

The non-parasitic agents of diseases are characteristically non-living and therefore are not
spread from diseased to healthy plants. The diseases that they cause are non-infectious. Non-infectious
diseases are recognized by their symptoms (no signs are present). A knowledge of soil conditions,
temperature ranges, the weather immediately before and during disease occurrence, and other
environmental factors are often necessary for correct diagnosis. Proper diagnosis is very difficult when
multiple environmental factors are involved in disease development.

OBJECTIVE:

To differentiate the abiotic from biotic factors that causes plant diseases.

MATERIALS:

- Bond Paper
- Pen

Answer the following:

1. What are the factors that causes plant diseases? Differentiate the two.

2. Describe and differentiate the different parasitic agents of plant diseases.(minimum of 5 sentences
each biotic causal agent)

3. Give at least five (5) examples each of the different plant parasitic agents of plant diseases.

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LESSON 5 DISEASE CYCLE

The development of disease in a single plant or in plant populations goes

through a sequence of events called the disease cycle. The cycle includes the activities of the pathogen
while it is on and within suscept as well as those while the pathogen is away from the host. The disease
cycle should be distinguished from the life cycle of the pathogen.

A. Parts of a Disease Cycle

The disease cycle is a continuous process, hence, a particular stage may blend with one before
it and with the succeeding stage.

DISSEMINATION OF INOCULA
Inoculum is composed of pathogen structures capable of initiating disease production. The eggs, larvae
and adults of plant parasitic nematodes may serve as inoculum. Other inocula are fungal pathogen that
produce asexual and sexual spores, cells of bacteria and mycoplasmas, rickettsia, virus particles, viroid
entities and seeds of parasitic nematodes may serve as inoculum.

Sources of inoculum
1) Infected living plants,
2) Plant debris
3) Infested soil
4) Infected seeds and vegetative propagating materials
5) Contaminated containers, storage areas and equipment
6) Insect, nematodes and other living agents that carry inocula.

Major sources of inoculum in the field are infected plants, including weeds and other alternative hosts
as well as the host species of economic importance. When disease plants die, they may still serve as
sources of inoculum if the pathogen survives as a saprophyte or remains dormant in the plant debris.

Inocula, to be effective, have reach the infection court. The spread or the dissemination of
inoculum may be affected by wind, water, man, insects, nematodes, seeds and other planting materials.

 Wind dissemination
o Major means of spreading air-borne pathogens such as fungal spores of leaf, stem, and fruit
pathogens. Dissemination by wind involves:
-take off (getting the inoculum to the air)
-flight (moving the inoculum from one place to another)
-deposition (settling of inoculum from the atmosphere)
(Wind can transport inocula to vast distances. Viruses, viroids and mycoplasmas are not disseminated
by wind. Nematodes are normally not carries by wind. Bacteria may be carried along with soil particles
or plant debris that are air-borne.)

 Dissemination by rain
o Fungal spores and bacterial cells are carried to show distances by rain splashes.

 Dissemination by insects

o Viruses, as well as some bacteria and fungi are carried from plant to plant by insect
vectors. As insects feed on a plant, the inoculum that they carry are deposited and are
left on injured portions where the insects had just fed on.
 Dissemination be seed and planting materials
o Viruses, viroids, mycoplasmas and many bacteria are often carried internally in infected
dead or vegetative propagating materials. Seeds and other plant materials may also
carry fungal spores, bacterial cells or nematodes externally or on the surface.
 Dissemination by man

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o Man is a long-distance disseminator of plant pathogens. Many diseases have been

introduced from country to country or continents by men who carry infected and infested
planting materials and seeds.
INOCULATION
This is the deposition of inoculum unto or into an infection court. Inoculum is any part of the
pathogen that can initiate disease. The infection court may be a natural opening (stomata, lenticles,
hydathode, and growth crack), a wound, or intact host surface.

PENETRATION/INGRESS
Penetration occurs upon the entrance of the pathogen into the host. Penetration is completed
when the pathogen has passed through the initial cell wall or entered the intercellular areas so that the
pathogen is within the plant.

Two types of penetration

1. Passive penetration- passive if the pathogen plays no active part in it, as when bacterial cells
carried by the film of water through the stomatate into the host tissues.
2. Active penetration- active if the pathogen directly participates as when the fungal spore
germinates, forms a germ tube, an appresorium for attachment, and penetrates through the
intact host surface by forming an infection hypha or penetration peg.

INFECTION
It occurs when the pathogen has become established in the plant tissues after penetration and
obtains nutrients from the host.

Latent infection – the state in which the host is infected with the pathogen but does not show any
symptoms.
Following infection – the pathogen continues to grow and colonize the host

COLONIZATION/INVASION
Following infection, the pathogen continues to grow and colonize the host. Colonization is the
growth or movement of the pathogen through the host tissues.

INCUBATION
Incubation period has been used to mean the time from inoculation to production of visible
symptoms. Others use it to refer to the time from the first response of the plant to formation of visible
symptoms.

SURVIVAL
Some pathogen structures may not land on a susceptible plant and certain environmental
factors may not favor their continued growth and development. The pathogen has therefore to tide over
adverse conditions or survive until conditions become once more favorable for pathogenesis. When
favorable conditions occur, inoculation proceeds followed by the penetration and the cycle continues
once more.

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LESSON 6 PLANT-DISEASE EPIDEMIOLOGY (ELEMENTS OF AN EPIDEMIC)

Epidemiology- is the study of disease development in plant populations. It takes into account all the
factors involved in disease production:
a) Plant susceptibility
b) Pathogen virulence
c) The duration and intensity of the various environmental factors
d) Time
e) Presence of vectors, and
f) Intervention of measures by man

Epidemic
- widespread, explosive disease outbreak (layman’s viewpoint)
- an increase in disease incidence within the plant population with time.

Epiphytotics- refers to epidemics of plant disease.

Endemic disease- one that is native or indigenous to a particular place.

Exotic disease- which has been introduced from some other area.

Both endemic and exotic can develop into explosive epidemics.

Pandemic disease – one of worldwide or widespread occurrence throughout a continent or a region.

Sporadic disease are those that occur at irregular intervals.

Factors affecting the development of epidemics

The occurrence of an epidemic requires that susceptible plants at a susceptible stage be

exposed to abundant viable inoculum of a virulent pathogen during favorable environmental conditions
for pathogen multiplication, infection and dissemination.

Analysis of epidemics

The increase in the amount of disease at any one time is dependent on the following:
a) initial amount of disease or initial inoculum,
b) the rate of disease increase,
c) the duration of disease increase or the period of time involved.

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LESSON 7 VARIABILITY IN PLANT PATHOGENS

General Concepts
 Plant pathogenic microorganisms like other organisms, continually undergo changes
 The shorter the generation time and the larger the numbers of reproductive units formed in
each generation, the greater are the chance of producing genetic changes over a given period
of time.
 Bacterial populations – can double their numbers every 20 minutes during favourable
environmental conditions
 Fungus – can form millions of spores within a few days
 The changes that a pathogen undergoes may involve an increase or decrease in its
pathogenicity. Thus, new races capable of attacking new host varieties may be formed; or some
races may lose their virulence.
 Terms used in grouping organisms below the species level:

A. Biotype
 Populations of life forms that is identical in all inheritable traits; genetically homogenous.
 If an organism from one biotype mates with one from another biotype, a different group
is formed as a result of hybridization.
B. Pathovar
 Among bacterial plant pathogen, a strain or group of strains at the infrasubspecies level,
with identical or similar characteristics based on pathogenicity, symptoms, or signs and
host range.
C. Pathogenic race
 Another subdivision of the subspecies level which is made up of one or more biotype
with morphologically identical members. The development of pathogeneic races is
enhanced by the following:
1. absence of susceptible varieties
2. presence of resistant varieties
3. sexual reproduction of pathogen
4. obligate parasitism
5. narrow host range
D. Formae speciales or special form
 Based on the ability to attack different genera of crop plants
 Example is Puccinia graminis with members that infect different cereal crops with forma
speciales tritici attacking wheat only and f.sp. avenae attacking oat only.
 Each forma speciales may contain different races that attack different varieties of the
host.
 Microorganisms naturally undergo genetic changes through hybridization, mutation, and a
variety of sexual-like and asexual processes

Mechanism of Variation

Sources of Variation in the Fungi

1. Heterokaryosis
 The presence of different nuclei in the same mycelium
 Each nucleus in a heterokaryon is independent of the other nuclei although the behaviour and
phenotype of the microorganism are controlled by the kinds of genes present and by the
proportion of each kind.
 It is an important method of producing new fungal strains or races with a concomitant change
in pathogenicity
2. Parasexual process
 Parasexuality was first observed by Pontecorvo and Roper while working with Aspergillus
nidulans.
 It mimics sexual reproduction in that genetic recombination occurs but it is mitotic recombination
with vegetative heterokaryotic hyphae.

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LESSON 4.
CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASES

 It starts with the formation of a heterokaryon, followed by karyogamy or diploidization of

nuclei, the multiplication of these nuclei and finally, the restoration to the haploid state.
3. Mutation
 A discontinuous heritable change of the genetic material which may arise spontaneously or
through the action of mutagenic agents.
4. Cytoplasmic variation
 It has long been recognized that the nucleus does not have a monopoly on heredity as the
cytoplasm also carries heredity determinants.
 These extrachromosomal particulate elements can multiply and be transmitted asexually
through hyphal anastomosis or sexually.
5. Sexual reproduction
 This results in hybridization through segregation and genetic recombination.

Sources of Variation in Bacteria

1. Mutation
2. Transformation
 A sexual-like process through which bacterial cells absorb and incorporate in their own cells
heritable genetic materials that are released by other bacteria.
 The agent is believed to be DNA which the recipient bacteria acquire from the growth filtrate of
the donor bacteria.

3. Transduction
 Occurs when a bacteriophage transfers genetic material from its former host bacterium to its
next host
4. Conjugation
> There is transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another when two compatible cells come
in contact with each other.

Sources of Variation in Nematodes

 Nematodes form new pathogenic races through hybridization and mutation. Pathogenicity
varies according to the degree of resistance/susceptibility of the host.
Sources of Variation in other Pathogens
 All pathogens which reproduce sexually utilize hybridization as a means of variation
 Recombination may also occur if two or more virus strains are present in the same plant.
 Mutation is universal among organisms and may occur even in the viruses and viroids.
 Variations are expressed not only through direct changes in pathogenicity but also through
alterations in:
1. growth rate
2. longevity
3. host range
4. optimum temperature

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SELF-ASSESSMENT 5

I. Direction: Enumerate the following;

1-6.Give the different dissemination of inoculum.
7-8.Give the two types of penetration.
9-10. give the two types of infection.

II. Write T if the statement is correct and F if the statement is false, also underline the word/s that make
the statement false.
1. Epidemiology is the study of disease interval in plant populations.
2. Epidemiology is the study of disease development in plant populations.
3. Epidemic an increase in disease incidence within the plant population with time.
4. Exotic disease which has been native from some other area.
5. Sporadic diseases are those that occur at irregular intervals.

III. Fill in the blank.

1. Plant pathogenic microorganisms like other _______, continually undergo changes.
2. Bacterial populations can double their numbers every _______ during favourable environmental
conditions.
3. Nematodes form new pathogenic races through _______ and mutation.
4. Mutation is universal among organisms and may occur even in the ______ and viroids.
5. Occurs when a ________ transfers genetic material from its former host bacterium to its next
host.

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REFERENCES:

Philippine Rice Research Institute, (2006) Integrated Pest Management in Rice-Vegetable

Cropping Systems. Maligaya, Science City of Munoz, Nueva Ecija.

Ilag L.L & Ilag, L.L.(2002) Learning the Principle of Plant Pathology. Second Ed.

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CHAPTER 2

WEED SCIENCE

OVERVIEW

This learning material discusses CROPPROT 1 – Principles of Crop Protection. The content of this is
focused on the Weed Science and its sub topics. The concepts, figures, tables and other facts
incorporated in this learning material are borrowed from various materials and re-organized into concise
body guided by the course outcomes-based syllabus.
To facilitate learning, a pre-test was designed to determine the students’ level of knowledge on the
topic. This was followed by a detailed lesson and discussion provided with examples taken from various
sources to facilitate students’ learning. Moreover, self-assessment questions/activities were
incorporated at the end of each topic for evaluation.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lecture, the student is expected to:

1. Define weed science

2. Identify and understand the biology of weeds
3. Identify and differentiate the different kinds of weeds
4. Understand weed reproduction and establishment
5. Explain the effects of weed on crops and humans

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DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

Acidophile- acid soil weeds

Asexual or vegetative reproduction
Auricle - claw-like or ear-like appendage
Basophile- saline and alkaline soil weeds.
Bulb – modified underground bud.
C3 WEEDS – Weeds that employ photosynthetic pathway where a 3- carbon compound is the first
stable product.
C2 WEEDS – Weeds that employ a more efficient photosynthetic pathway in which a 4- compound is
the first stable product.
Digitate – a compound structure whose members arise and diverge from the same point: like the
fingers of the hand.
Grasses - members of the family Gramineae (Poaceae) which range from small, twisted, erect, or
creeping annuals and perennials.
Inflorescence – the arrangement of flowers o the plant
Ligule- thin membranous appendage at the junction of the leaf sheath and the blade in grasses.
Sexual reproduction – by seeds
Terrestrial – weeds that grow in dry lands (moist to dry)

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Introduction
Weeds have been with us since the advent of settled agriculture some 10,000 years ago. It
has been suggested that the most common characteristics of the ancestors of our presently dominant
crop plant is their “weediness”- their ability to proliferate and thrive in disturbed habitats, most notably
around human dwellings (Cox, 2006). Thus, weed biology relates to the plant attributes such as
morphology, seed dormancy and germination, physiology of growth, competitive ability and
reproductive biology. It is essential to have a knowledge in weed biology for development of both
economically and environmentally acceptable weed management systems.

Knowing that weeds are competing with the desirable crops, it is important to understand and
predict how weed species, populations and biotypes evolve in response to the selection pressure
primarily due to agricultural and related practices. It is said that proper identification is half way to
control and select the right herbicide as well as timing of application to a particular weed. In addition,
weed identification may form the first step in balancing the needs for weed control with the requirements
for biodiversity and more sustainable production methods (Naidu, 2012).

LESSON 1. WEED SCIENCE AND CONCEPT OF A WEED

WEED SCIENCE

It is the study of weeds and their control. It is an off-shoot plant physiology having evolved from
the study of plant regulators, whether it is manual, mechanical, cultural, biological, chemical or
ecological. The main goal is to formulate the most effective, economical, and satisfactory methods.

CONCEPT OF WEED

Weeds are one of the limiting factors of many vegetables and cash crops farming systems. If
not controlled properly, weeds will undeniably reduce the quantity and quality of harvest by way of
competition for sunlight, nutrients and water that are needed for the growth and development of
cultivated plants. There are many methods for to control weeds. To achieve, economical, economically
sounds, and socially acceptable weed control, knowledge on correct identification as well as deep
understanding on the biology and ecology of target weeds are necessary.

Weeds are important component of agroecosystem. They are important factors in the
management of land and water resources and their economic impact is the greatest in agriculture. They
often dictate many of the crop production practices and management decisions in growing crops. A
weed is a plant, unwanted at a particular time and place. The reason for its unwanted is due to the fact
that it can do more harm than good under a particular time and place

 A plant growing where it is not wanted

 A plant whose potentials for harm far outweighs its potentialities for good
 A plant whose virtues have not been discovered
 A plant or plant part interfering with the objectives of man in a specific situation
 A misfit

Why weeds as pest are not recognized early?

 The damage caused by weeds are not visible as those caused by insects and diseases.
 Seldom results to total crop failure.
 Crops and weeds are always associated together

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SELF –ASSESSMENT 1

As you have studied the lesson: Weed Science and the Concept of Weeds, answer the
following questions based on your understanding and what you have learned.

1. What is weed science?

a. It is a study of weeds and their control
b. It is to formulate the most effective, economical, and satisfactory methods
c. It is important component of agroecosystem
d. It is a plant growing where it is not wanted

2. Why weeds as pest are not recognized early?

a. Seldom results to total crop failure
b. A plant whose virtues have not been discovered
c. They are important factors in the management of land and water resources and their
economic impact is the greatest in agriculture
d. A weed is a plant, unwanted at a particular time and place

3. What is a weed?
a. A plant growing where it is not wanted
b. A plant whose potentials for harm far outweighs its potentialities for good
c. A plant whose virtues have not been discovered
d. All of the above

4. What is the important component of agroecosystem?

a. weeds
b. insects
c. human
d. corn

5. What do weeds compete for?

a. sunlight
b. nutrients
c. water resources
d. all of the above

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LESSON 2. CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEED

CHARACTERISTICS OF WEED

A unique characteristic of a weed is its excellent adaptation to the disturbed environment. They
are able to occupy the ecological spaces left open in those environment altered by man for his use.

Other characteristics of weeds

1. They have rapid vegetative growth.
2. They reproduce rapidly and mature early.
3. Most weeds are very prolific and produce abundant seeds. Ex. Rottboellia cochinchinensis,
Scirpus maritimus
4. They have the ability to survive and adapt to adverse conditions.
5. Propagules possess dormancy or can be induced to become dormant under unfavourable
conditions.
6. Adapted to crop competition.

CLASSIFICATION OF WEED

Weed classification refers to grouping together of weeds based on their similarities and
differences. The knowledge of the different types of weeds is essential in order to formulate an effective
control measure.

Knowledge in weed classification is very important in selecting, designing, planning and

implementing cost- effective and environment-friendly weed management strategies and techniques.

By taxonomists and weed scientists, weeds are the same way as all other plants and species
based on phylogenetic (from the Greek phylo or phulon, meaning “race” or “tribe,” plus the Geek gen,
meaning “be born of” or become”) relationships, or a plant’s ancestry. Phylogenetic keys to plant
species, based on ancestry and ancestral similarity, include division, subdivision, class, family, genus
and species.

BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION

1. LIFE CYCLE OR MATURITY

 ANNUALS – weeds that compete their life cycle from seed to seed in less than one
year.
 PERENNIALS – weeds that complete their life cycle in more than a year. They can be
simple or creeping.
o Simple Perennials – spread through seeds and by vegetative propagations.
They may generate vegetatively into a new plant in their shoots are injured or
cut off from the mother plant.
o Creeping Perennials – on the other hand, are those that reproduce by seeds
and vegetative organs such as stolons (creeping above-ground stems),
rhizomes (creeping below-ground stems), tubers, aerial bulblets, and bulbs.

2. HABIT OF MANNER OF GROWTH

 ERECT – ex. Itchgrass
 DECUMBENT – ex. goosegrass
 PROSTRATE – ex. Jungle rice
 ASCENDING – ex. Day flower
 CREEPING – Bermuda grass
 TWINING – ex. Three-lobed morning glory

3. HABITAT OR PLACE FOR PREFERRED GROWTH

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 AQUATIC – weeds that emerge and grow in very wet or submerged soils (wet to moist)
 SEMI-AQUATIC – weeds that grow in dry lands with some tolerance to submergence
conditions (dry to wet)
 TERRESTRIAL – weeds that grow in dry lands (moist to dry)

4. INFLORESCENCE OR FLORAL STRUCTURE OF THE PLANT

 PANICLE - is an inflorescence in the main axis `with a least primary and secondary
branching
Example: barnyard grass – the inflorescence is a panicle with numerous ascending
green spikes
 DIGITATE – is a compound structure whose members arise and diverge from the same
point, like the fingers of the land
Example: goosegrass – the inflorescence is digitate, terminal whorl of 3 to 6 spikes
 RACEME – is more or less a conical inflorescence with flowers arising laterally from a
common axis
Example: itchgrass – the inflorescence is a raceme at terminus of culm or branch
 UMBEL – is an inflorescence in which a number of divergent flowers arise from the same
point.
Example – purple nutsedge – the inflorescence is composed of terminal umbels which
are reddish-brown when mature.

5. BODY TEXTURES
 Woody weeds- hard in texture
 Semi-woody weeds
 Herbaceous weeds- soft, succulent

6. SOIL TYPE (EDAPHIC)

 Weeds of black cotton soil- these are often closely allied to those that grow in dry
classes condition. E.g., Aristolochia bracteata
 Weeds of red soils- they are like the weeds of garden lands consisting of several plants.
E.g., Commelina benghalensis
 Weeds of light, sandy or loamy soils- weeds that occur in soils in having good drainage.
E.g. Leucas aspera
 Weeds of laterite soils- E.g. Lantana camara, Spergula arvensis
7. PLACE OF OCCURRENCE
 Weeds of crop lands. The majority of weeds infests the cultivated lands and cause
hindrance to the farmers for successful crop production. E.g. Phalaris minor in wheat
 Weeds of pasture lands. Weeds found in pasture/ grazing grounds. E.g. Indigofera
enneaphylla
 Weeds of waste places. Corners of fields, margins of channels etc., where weeds grow
in profusion. E.g. Gynandropsis pentaphylla, Calotropis gigantean
 Weeds of playgrounds, road-sides. They are usually hardy, prostrate perrenials,
capable of withstanding any amount of trampling. Eg. Alternathera echinata, Tribulus
terestris

8. ORIGIN
 Indigenous weeds- All the native weeds of the country are coming under this group.
 Introduced or Exotic weeds- These are the weeds introduced from other countries.
These weeds are normally troublesome and control becomes difficult.

9. BASED ON SOIL PH
 Acidophile- acid soil weeds.
 Basophile- saline and alkaline soil weeds.
 Neutrophile- weeds of neutral soils.

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10. PHOTOSYNTHETIC ABILITY

 C3 WEEDS – Weeds that employ photosynthetic pathway where a 3- carbon compound is

the first stable product. Weeds belonging to this group prefer environments where
temperature and sunlight intensity are moderate, and water supply is plenty. C3 weeds,
however, cannot tolerate very high temperatures since they are prone to wasteful
biochemical process called photorespiration. Thus, most of them are dominant in ricefields
that are under submerged conditions.
 C2 WEEDS – Weeds that employ a more efficient photosynthetic pathway in which a 4-
compound is the first stable product. Weeds under this group have physiological
adaptations that allow them to thrive in very hot and drier areas ( dry land or rainfed
conditions), and where concentrations of carbon dioxide are limited.
11. GROSS MORPHOLOGY OR OUTWARD APPEARANCE

 GRASSES
o Members of the family Gramineae (Poaceae) which range from small, twisted, erect,
or creeping annuals and perennials.
o Leaves are long and narrow, which usually arise alternately into rows from the nodes,
and ligules and sometimes auricles.
o Leaf veins are parallel while leaf sheaths are split around the stem.
o Stems are called culm with well-defined nodes and internodes.
o The leaf is composed of two parts, the leaf sheath and leaf blade.
o Stems are round and hollow inside.

 SEDGES
o Members of the family Cyperaceae
o Leaves are also long and narrow but do not have ligules and auricles.
o Leaf veins are also parallel but the leaf sheaths are continuous around the stem.
o Stems are triangular in shape and have no nodes and internodes.

 BROADLEAVES
o Members belong to many families.
o members of the family Dicotyledonae and monocotylidonae characterized by
shorter but wider leaves with either parallel or netted venation like pickerel weed
(parallel veins) or three-lobed morning glory (netted veins).
o Leaves are fully expanded with netted veins.
o Leaves, flowers, stems and branches are broadly arranged in various shapes,
colors and structures.

GRASSES
 Cynodon dactylon
 Dactyloctenium aegyptium
 Digitaria ciliaris
 Echinochloa colona
 Echinochloa crus-galli ssp. hispidula
 Echinochloa glabrescens
 Eleusine indica
 Ischaemum rugosum
 Leersia hexandra
 Leptochloa chinensis
 Oryza sativa (weedy rice)
 Panicum ripens
 Paspalum conjugatum
 Paspalum distichum
 Paspalum scrobiculatum

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SEDGES
 Cyperus compactus
 Cyperus compessus
 Cyperus difformis
 Cyperus digitatus
 Cyperus distans
 Cyperus halpan
 Cyperus imbricatus
 Cyperus iria
 Cyperus rotundus
 Fimbristylis dichotoma
 Fimbristylis miliacea
 Scirpus grossus
 Scirpus juncoides

BROADLEAVES
 Aeschynomene indica
 Alternanthera sessilis
 Amaranthus spinosus
 Amaranthus viridis
 Ammannia baccifera
 Ammannia coccinea
 Basilicum polystachyon
 Cardiospermum halicacabum
 Cleome rutidosperma
 Cleome viscisa
 Commelina benghalensis
 Commelina diffusa
 Corchorus aestuans
 Corchorus olitorius
 Eclipta prostrata
 Eclipta zippeliana
 Eichhornia crassipens
 Hedyotis biflora
 Hedyotis corymbosa
 Hedyotis diffusa
 Heliotripium indicum

For convenience in the study of weeds and as an aid in considering the method of their control, weeds
can be classified as:

 Common Weeds- weeds that are more or less found in every farm but not
exceptionally injurious and are readily controlled by good farming practices.
 Noxious Weeds- weeds that are particularly undesirable because of their certain
undesirable characteristics, like the presence of an extensive perennial underground
system which enable to resist the most determined effort to control.

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LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

ACTIVITY 1
CLASSIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON WEEDS

INTRODUCTION

Weed classification refers to grouping together of weeds based on their similarities and
differences. The knowledge of the different types of weeds is essential in order to formulate an effective
control measure.

By taxonomists and weed scientists, weeds are the same way as all other plants and species
based on phylogenetic (from the Greek phylo or phulon, meaning “race” or “tribe,” plus the Geek gen,
meaning “be born of” or become”) relationships, or a plant’s ancestry. Phylogenetic keys to plant
species, based on ancestry and ancestral similarity, include division, subdivision, class, family, genus
and species.

OBJECTIVE:

To identify and distinguish the common weeds in an area based on its classifications.

Materials:

- Bond paper
- Pen
- Weed specimen
METHODOLOGY:

1. Collect at least 5 different weeds according to its morphology or outward appearance in your
location.
2. Identify the English name, Common name, scientific name, also a brief discussion of
observation about the weeds and identify if this classify as grasses, sedges, and
broadleaves.
3. Paste the specimen on a bond paper with its corresponding explanations.

Sample:

English name: Jungle rice

Common name: Dukayang, lau-lau, pulang-pwet

Scientific name: Echinochloa colona (L.)

Morphology: belong to the Grass family

Life cycle: Annual

Habitat: Terrestrial
Observation:

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SELF-ASSESSMENT 2

TRUE OR FALSE

1. Perennial weeds are weeds that compete their life cycle from seed to seed in less than one
year.
2. Weed characteristics refers to grouping together of weeds based on their similarities and
differences.

3. Semi-aquatic weeds are weeds that grow in dry lands with some tolerance to submergence
conditions (dry to wet).
4. Grasses are members of the family Gramineae (Poaceae) which range from small, twisted,
erect, or creeping annuals and perennials.
5. Sedges are members of the family Dicotyledonae and monocotylidonae characterized by
shorter but wider leaves with either parallel or netted venation like pickerel weed (parallel veins)
or three-lobed morning glory (netted veins).
6. Common weeds are weeds that are more or less found in every farm but not exceptionally
injurious and are readily controlled by good farming practices.
7. A unique characteristic of a weed is its excellent adaptation to the disturbed environment.
8. Indigenous weeds are the weeds introduced from other countries.
9. Exotic weeds are all the native weeds of the country coming under this group.
10. Panicle is an inflorescence in the main axis `with a least primary and secondary branching

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LESSON 3. WEEDS, CROPS AND OTHER PESTS

Weeds are an important plant resource for insects, although feeding by insects on weeds can
have both positive and negative effects on crop productivity. Weeds also indirectly affect crops via their
influence on beneficial insects, and by harboring plant and insect diseases. Weeds may affect the ability
of dispersing insects to locate crop plants. The relationship between insects and plants is highly
variable, ranging from very specialized to generalize feeding behavior. Despite the myriad interactions
of weeds and insects, many aspects of the relationship are predictable. Most insects, including crop
pests, are specialist, and preadapted to feed only on same plants, often within a single plant family.
Even polyphagous insects often have a distinct preference hierarchy, feeding more widely only when
preferred host are unavailable. Use of plant by insects is a dynamic interaction, with characteristics of
the (e.g, mandible structure) and the plant (e.g, allelochemicals) affecting feeding behavior. Thus,
weeds that are closely related to crops are particularly important in harboring insects that attack those
crops. Crop production practices should seek to sever the taxonomic association between the crop and
the weeds found within the crop, and nearby, by eliminating weeds related to the crop. This will make
it less likely that insects will move easily from weed to crop plants, that damaging population densities
of insects will develop in the field, and that insect vectors that harbor plant diseases will be harbored in
the field. Particularly important integrated pest management practice includes crop rotation, reduced
use of chemical, herbicides, and management of weeds in non-cultivated areas.

Weed infestations are a never-ending concern for every farmer. More specifically, it reduces the yield
of a particular crop.

LIST OF MAJOR WEEDS WITH THEIR CLASSIFICATIONS

CLASSIFICATION
SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON BASED ON LIFE
ENGLISH NAME DURATION AND ILLUSTRATIONS
GROSS
MORPHOLOGY
1. LOWLAND RICE (transplanted or broadcast-seeded,
irrigated or rainfed)

Echinochloa Barnyard grass

glaberescens Annual grass

Echinochloa Barnyard grass Annual grass

crusgalli

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Echinochloa Jungle rice Annual grass

colona

Monocharia Pickerel weed Annual/ perennial

vaginalis broadleaf

Small flower Annual sedge

Cyperus difformis umbrella plant

Rice flatsegde
Cyperus iria Annual sedge

Water lettuce
Pistia stratiotes Perrenial broadleaf

Ipomoea aquatic Swamp morning- Perrenial broadleaf

glory

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Paspalum Knotgrass Perrenial grass

distichum

Sphenoclea Gooseweed Annual broadleaf

zeylanica

2. UPLAND RICE, CORN, FIELD LEGUMES

Rottboellia Itchgrass Annual grass

conchinchinensis

Eleusine indica Goosegrass Annual grass

Amaranthus Spiny amaranth Annual grass

spinosus

Echinochloa Jungle rice Annual grass

colona

Commelina Dayflower Annual/ perennial

benghalensis broadleaf

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Three-lobed
Ipomoea triloba morning glory Annual broadleaf

Digitaria ciliaris Crabgrass Annual grass

Cynodon dactylon Bermuda grass Perrenial grass

Erect spiderling Annual broadleaf

Boerhavia erecta

Dactyloctenium crowfoot grass Annual grass

agyptium

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Euphorbia hirta Garden Annual grass

Spurge

Ageratum Tropic ageratum

conyzoides Annual broadleaf

mperata cylindrical Cogon grass Perrenial grass

3. VEGETABLE CROPS

Portulaca oleracea Common purslane Annual/ perennial

broadleaf

Trianthema Horse purslane Annual broadleaf

portulacastrum

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Cyperus rotundus Purple nutsedge Perrenial sedge

Amaranthus Spiny Amaranth Annual broadleaf

spinosus

Amaranthus viridis Slender amaranth Annual broadleaf

Eleusine indica Goosegrass Annual grass

Cynodon dactylon Bermuda grass Perrenial grass

Commelina Dayflower Annual/ perennial

benghalensis broadleaf

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Echinochloa Jungle rice Annual grass

colona

Mimosa indica Sensitive plant Annual broadleaf

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LEARNING ACTIVITY 2

ACTIVITY 2
CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS
(Anatomy and Physiology of Grasses, Sedges, and Broadleaves)

INTRODUCTION

There are many ways on which weeds can be classified into groups for convenience of
planning, interpreting and recording control measures against them.

Weeds can be classified according to their gross morphological features, such as grasses,
sedges and broadleaves. Grasses, from the family Gramineae (Poaceae) which range from small,
twisted, erect, or creeping annuals and perennials. Sedges, from the family Cyperaceae. Broadleaves,
from the family Dicotyledonae and monocotylidonae characterized by shorter but wider leaves with
either parallel or netted venation like pickerel weed (parallel veins) or three-lobed morning glory (netted
veins).

OBJECTIVES

To classify weeds according to its gross morphological feature.

To differentiate weeds (grasses, sedges, broadleaves)

MATERIALS

-Bond Paper
-Pencil
-Pen

METHOD:

1. Draw an anatomy of grass, sedges and broadleaves and label the parts.
2. In a separate sheet of bond paper, list the parts and look for its meaning.
3. Based on what you have learned, discuss the differences between the three. (Grasses,
sedges, and broadleaves)

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Lesson 4. EFFECT OF WEEDS ON HUMAN AFFAIRS

Weeds are one of the major threats to the natural environment. They can destroy native
habitats, threatening native plants and animals and choking our natural systems including rivers and
forests.

The economic cost of weeds

The quality and quantity of harvest can be reduced by weeds. Agricultural, horticultural and
forestry products, affecting industry and consumers.

Impact on the environment

Weeds are one of the major threats to the environment. Major invasions of weeds change the
natural diversity and balance of ecological communities. These changes threaten the survival of many
plants and animals because the weeds compete with the native plants for space, nutrients and sunlight.

The impact of weeds in agriculture

Weeds can harm livestock in some cases. Weeds can reduce farm and forest productivity. They
invade crops and smother pastures. They aggressively compete for water, nutrients, and sunlight,
causing to reduce crop yield and poor crop quality.

Contamination of weeds

 burrs in wool contaminate fleeces

 grain milled with saffron Thistle or Amsinckia results in discolored flour
 animals that eat specific weeds, such as wiled garlic, produce tainted milk and meet.
 Spines on fruit of caltrop and spiny Emex can damage the feet of stock animals.
 Paterson’s Curse irritates the udders of dairy cows and can kill horses
 Hemlock can be lethal to both stock and people.

The impact of weeds on human health

Weeds can also cause human health problems. Some weed can also cause irritation, and some
are poisonous. Many common weeds such as parthenium weed, ragweed, Rye Grass and privet cause
asthma and other respiratory, especially in children.

Examples of harmful weeds or noxious weeds to Human and animals;

Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia) – can cause classic itch,

runny or stuffed nose, read watery and itchy eye maybe prickling
mouth or ear

Picture Credit https://www.allergicliving.com/2016/09/01/all-about-ragweed-allergy-

signs-symptomps-and-avoidance/

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Bittersweet nightshade (Solanum dulcamora) – is somewhat

poisonous and has caused loss of livestock and pet poisoning
and, more rarely, sickness and even death in children who have
eaten the berries.

Picture credit https://www.minnesotawilflowers.info/flowers/bittersweet-nighshade

Stinging nettle (Utica dioica) – side effect includes mild

stomach upset, fluid retention, sweating, diarrhea, and hives or
rash.

Photo credit https://commonsensehome.com/stinging-nettle/

The development of disease in a single plant or in plant populations goes through a sequence
of events called the disease cycle. The cycle includes the activities of the pathogen while it is on and
within suscept as well as those while the pathogen is away from the host. The disease cycle should be
distinguished from the life cycle of the pathogen.

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LESSON 5. REPRODUCTION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF WEEDS

Weed Reproduction
Weed multiply and reproduce despite the efforts taken to eliminate them. They have very
efficient method of reproduction and remarkable capacity for arrival under a wide range conditions.

 Methods of reproduction
o Sexual reproduction – by seeds
o Asexual or vegetative reproduction
Principal types of vegetative propagules:
1. Bulb- a short, basal, underground stem surrounded by thick fleshy leasves
2. Rhizome– is a modified underground stem with buds scales. Example: cogon grass
3. Stolon – is a modified aboveground stem that creeps and roots at the side.
Example: Bermuda grass
4. Tuber – is a short thickened underground stem. Example: purple nutsedge
5. Off-shoot – is a baby plant that arises from the mother plant. Example: water lettuce
6. Runner- a slender trailing stem rooting at the nods.

The persistence of the weeds in the field demand mainly on their ability to reinfest the soil. If
we can only control the production of seeds of annual weeds and suppress the rapid vegetative
propagation of perennial weeds, we could eventually eliminate the species of weeds.

Weeds are easily dispersed. They make use of natural forces and other agent dispersal.

Agents for dispersal:

1. Wind
2. Water
3. Animal
4. Man

Weed Establishment
The weeds emerging in a field at any one time represent only a small proportion of what is
stored in the soil. Aside from the environmental factors, the “readiness” of a seed to develop into a
seedling is controlled by certain physiological and physical forces within the seed. After emergence,
further development and survival resources are dependent upon association with other plants on its
ability to take advantage of the available resources and on its adaptability to changes in the
environment.

A. Soil as seed bank of weeds

Seed-bank of weeds connotes a big proportion of weed seed population in the soil, does not
emerge immediately, but remained buried and viable until conditions of germination become
favorable. They become the source of weed infestation even when clean culture is practiced.

Decline in weed seed population in the soil can occur in three ways:
1. Natural seed mortality in the soil.
2. Loss of viability through natural means or through actions of biological, physical and
chemical forces.
3. Stimulate seeds to germinate but inhibit from emerging or allow to emerge but kept
from producing reproductive propagules.

B. Longevity of weed seeds

Weed seeds can remain viable in the soil for a long period of time. They survive better
than the cultivated plants. This is due to their built-in mechanism for adaptation.
Aside from inherent life span of the seeds, storage condition determines to a large extent
their longevity. Seeds may remain viable if the critical moisture contained is maintained. When
storage condition becomes too dry, the seed may be desiccated and loss viability.

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C. Dormancy of weed seed

Dormancy is the inability of weed seed to germinate under favorable conditions. It is the
primary cause of the successive emergence of weeds in the field and one reasons for the
regrowth of weeds after the effect of the particular weed control has lapsed.

The mechanism responsible for seed dormancy may be:

Primary dormancy- incorporated to the seed during its development.
a. Physical or structural dormancy – impermeability of the seed coat to water and oxygen.
b. Physiological - prevents embryo growth and seed germination until chemical changes
occur.
1. Immature embryo
2. Presence of inhibitor

Ways of breaking dormancy

1. Microbial action
2. Treatment with acid (sulphuric acid)
3. Passage through the alimentary tract of animals
4. Dehulling or scarification
5. Exposure to alternate wet and dry conditions
6. After ripening process (lapse of time required for the plant to overcome the physiological
barrier for germination)
7. Treatment with germination promoters (KNO3, GA, Auxin)
8. Exposure to light to inactivate the inhibitors
9. Stratification or low temperature treatment
10. Use of suitable germination medium for germination that can adsorbed the inhibitors.

D. Dormancy of vegetative propagules

The difficulty encountered in the control of perennial grasses and sedges is attributed to
the development of underground dormant vegetative propagule. Dormancy in a rhizome, tuber
chain and tuber itself, is controlled by apical dominance exercised by the apical bud on the tuber.
Under field condition, breaking tuber chain or rhizome apical dominance can occur it connecting
tissues between tubers or nodes degenerate or when cultivation breaks them smaller fragments.

E. Weed Seed Germination

Germination – refers to the resumption of growth of the embryo in the seed or of the young
plantlet in the tuber, bulb or rhizome. It marks the beginning of the battle for the survival of the
weed.

Steps involved in seed germination:

1. Imbibition – absorption of water accompanied by swelling. This involves purely a physical

process which involves the absorption of water by starch or non-living part of the seed and can
take place in both living and dead seeds and a physiological process involving water absorption
by the embryo. This marks the initiation and progress of starch hydrolysis.

2. Period of rapid metabolic activity – cell division and cell elongation proceed at a fast rate
supported by a rapid synthesis of materials. The end result is the perceptive growth of the
embryo.

3. Emergence of root – under field condition the radicle or root-like structure break through the
seeds and grow into the soil.

4. Emergence of the shoot – commonly, this is considered the first sign of weed growth, the
shoot grow above the ground. In some weeds, germination may be:
 Hypogeal – cotyledons remain below or at the surface of the ground as in grasses and
sedges. In both species plumule is enclosed in the coleoptile.

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 Epigeal – cotyledons are carried above the ground as in the case of some leguminous
species
5. Period of independent growth – the dependence on food reserve ceases and the seedling
start to manufacture its own carbohydrate. From this stage on, the seedling is on its way to
establishment.

Factors Affecting Germination

a. Environmental factors
a. Moisture
b. Temperature
c. Oxygen
b. Cultural factors
i. Water management
ii. Cultivation wetting and drying

F. Seedling Growth Needs

The seedling stage is the most important stage in weed establishment. It is the most sensitive
to environmental influences. The demand for water is high, so that in a crop-weed association,
the weed seedlings complete strongly for the resources in the environment with the crop
seedling.
Weeds (plant) at their early stages of growth assume morphological forms different from the
mature plant (polymorphism).

Factors affecting seedling growth and development of weeds:

1. Soil factor
a. Nutrient level
b. Salinity
2. Light
3. Adaptation to growing condition
4. Competitive power of weeds

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SELF-ASSESSMENT 3

Multiple choice: Select the best answer and write your answers on a sheet of paper.

1. It is the establishment of weeds that remains viable in the soil for a long period of time?
a. Dormancy of weed seed
b. Weed seeds germination
c. Longevity of weed seed
d. Soil as seed bank of weeds

2. The following are environmental factors affecting germination, except;

a. Moisture
b. Temperature
c. Oxygen
d. Water

3. The following are the factors affecting seedling growth and development of weeds, except;
a. Soil factor
b. Light
c. Oxygen
d. Adoption to growing condition

4. It is a short thickened underground stem.

a. Runner
b. Tuber
c. Stolon
d. Bulb

5. It is the impermeability of the seed coat to water and oxygen what is this?
a. Physical dormancy
b. Physiological dormancy
c. Dormancy
d. Germination

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LESSON 6. CROP AND WEED COMPETITION

Crops and weeds have the same requirements for growth and development, hence they
compete for the needed resources in the environment. Competition occurs when the supply of these
are limited or fall below the demand of both.

The overall effect of the competition is a reduction in the reproductive potential of the
competitors. To reduce competition, the less desirable competing individual is controlled or removed
from the environment or provide the limited resources in the environment.

Types of competition:
a. Interspecific – competition of plants of different species.
b. Intraspecific – competition of plants of the same species.

Resources competed for:

a. Water
b. Nutrient
c. Light

Factors affecting the degree of competition:

a. Weed species
b. Density
c. Time and weed competition
d. Crop variety or cultivar
e. Seeding method
f. Nutrient in the soil

Components of competition:
a. Influence of weeds on crop growth
b. Partial control weeds due to the presence of crop

Crops and weeds vary in their competitive abilities. The mere presence of highly competitive weed can
reduce yield, and a highly competitive crop can tolerate high density of seeds without reduction in yield.
This maximum weed density that will not cause a significant reduction in yield is the critical threshold
level (CTL).

Most crops can tolerate the presence of weeds for specific length of time beyond which the
presence of weeds above the CTL will cause significant reduction in yield. This specific duration of time
in which weeds can no longer be tolerated by the crop is the critical period competition (CPC). This
CPC is usually the initial 1/3 or 1/2 of the cropping period or time until the crop forms a canopy. In crops
that do not form canopy, stage of development can be used.

When to start and stop the weeding are very important information in weed control regardless
of the method employed.

ALLELOPATHY

 From Greek words: allelon (of each other); pathos (to suffer)
 It includes both detrimental and beneficial biochemical interactions among all classes of plants,
including microorganisms.
 The term allelopathy is coined by H. Molisch in 1937, Father of Allelopathy.
 Rice (1984) published a book on allelopathy. It is defined as “any direct or indirect harmful or
beneficial effects by one plant (including microorganisms) on another through the production of
chemical compounds that escape into the environment”.

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Classification of allelopathic substance

1. Antibiotic – substance produced by a microorganism and effective against another
microorganism
2. Marasmin – substance produced by a microorganism and toxic against higher plants
3. Phytoncide – substance produced by a higher plant and effective against a microorganism
4. Koline – substance produced by higher plants and effective against another higher plant.

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LESSON 7. CHANGE IN WEED COMPETITION

All vegetation is continuously changing as individual plant units die, they are replaced by
another individual. The rate of change varies with the life span of the species and the change is
largely governed by the environment as well as the activities of man.

Factors affecting change in weed competition

1. Cropping pattern
2. Crop variety or cultivar
3. Water management
4. Land preparation vs. zero tillage
5. Weed control method (Cultural or use of herbicide)
The inherent dynamism of weeds and the constantly changing environment will certainly bring
about a change in weed population. Weed scientist, however, hold a run of control and direct
the shift towards the weed species or group of weed species that is less difficult to control.

METHODS AND TECHNIQUES IN WEED MANAGEMENT

 Preventive methods – or approaches that reduce production and germination of weed seeds
and vegetative propagules and minimize their establishment and spread.
o use of high quality and disease and weed seed-free planting material
o control of weeds before they produce seeds or vegetative propagules

 Physical/cultural methods – directly destroy weeds or involve the manipulation of the

environment in the field to control weeds.
a. Land preparation and management of weed seeds and vegetative propagules reserve
banks in the soil. Initial plowing buries weeds and stubbles from the previous crops,
however, the process allows a batch of weed seeds to germinate which is called a weed
flush.
b. Hand weeding/slashing – weeds are controlled by uprooting or with the use of various
small local hand implements by slashing.
c. Hoe weeding – this method can be accomplished in less time compared with uprooting of
weeds
d. Inter-row cultivation – this may be done with animal or tractor-drawn implements
e. Mulching – provides considerable control of some weeds by reducing light available to
the crops and serving as a barrier to weed emergence.
f. Water management or flooding – this method is effectively used in transplanted lowland
rice.
g. Use of competitive crop varieties or cultivars – a variety adapted to the locality which is
characterized by an early rapid growth provides some measure of weed control through
its competitive advantage.
h. Multiple cropping – this may involve spatial (intercropping) or temporal (crop rotation or
sequential cropping) combinations of crops in an area in one year.

 Biological control – is the deliberate use of a weed’s natural enemies, such as insects or
pathogens, to suppress the growth or reduce the population of the weed. The types of biological
control are:
a. Classical approach – use of the host-specific damaging biotic agents from the country of
origin of the imported problem weed species.
b. Inundative approach – this includes augmentation and bioherbicide approaches
 Augmentative approach – natural enemies already present in the area where
the problem weed species occur often do not cause sufficient damage to effect
adequate control of the weeds because their population is low.
 Bioherbicide/mycoherbicide approach – involves the application of inoculum
of a weed pathogen in a manner analogous to a chemical herbicide. Two

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mycherbicides, devine and collego, are commercially available for the control of
specific weeds in USA.
 devine – marketed by Abbott Laboratories, is a liquid formulation of
chlamydospores of Phytophthora palmivora for the control of citrus groves of
Florida.
 collego – marketed by Upjohn Company, is a wettable powder formulation
of dried spores of Colletotrichum gloeosporoides f. aeschynomene. Collego
is sprayed post-emergence, aerially or with land-based sprayers.

 Chemical control – involves the use of herbicides for selective control of weeds with minimum
or no injury to the crop.
o the use of herbicides substantially reduces the labor requirement for weed control and
provides early season control of weeds within crop rows.
o safety precautions on the label should be strictly observed.
o improper use of herbicides may result in crop injury, poor or ineffective weed control
and drift or residue problems.
o

HERBICIDE CLASSIFICATION:

1. Time of application
a. preplant herbicide – herbicide applied after land preparation but before the crop is planted.
The herbicide is volatile and needs to be incorporated in the soil before planting.
b. preemergence herbicide – the chemical is applied after the crop is planted but before the
weeds of the crop emerge.
c. postemergence herbicide - the herbicide is applied after the crop or the weeds have
emerged.

2. Movement in plants
a. Contact herbicides – herbicide whose phytotoxic effects are manifested at the sites of the
plants where the spray droplets are deposited.
b. Translocated/systemic herbicide – herbicide whose phytotoxic effects are manifested at and
away from the sites on the plant where the spray droplets are deposited. The herbicide is
moved to other parts of the plant.

3. Selectivity
a. Non-selective herbicide – herbicide that kills all plants
b. Selective herbicide – herbicide that kill some plants leaving others practically unharmed.

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SELF-ASSESSMENT 4

TRUE OR FALSE
1. Interspecific competition is the competition of plants of different species.
2. Crop and weeds competed for water and nutrients only.
3. This specific duration of time in which weeds can no longer be tolerated by the crop is the
critical threshold level.
4. The term allelopathy is coined by H. Molisch in 1937, Father of Phytopathology.

5. Antibiotic is a substance produced by a microorganism and effective against another

microorganism
6. Koline is a substance produced by higher plants and effective against another higher plant.
7. Use of competitive crop varieties or cultivars is an example of biological control.
8. Use of the host-specific damaging biotic agents from the country of origin of the imported
problem weed species is an example of physical control.
9. Chemical control involves the use of herbicides for selective control of weeds with minimum or
no injury to the crop.
10. Preemergence herbicide is applied after land preparation but before the crop is planted.

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REFERENCES:
Donayre, D.K., et.al. (2019). Weeds of Vegetables and Other Cash Crop in the Philippines. Philippine
Rice Research Institute Maligaya, Science City of Munoz, Nueva Ecija

Donayre, D.K., et.al. (2019). Weeds in Irrigated and rainfed Lowland Ricefields in the Philippines.
Philippine Rice Research Institute Maligaya, Science City of Munoz, Nueva Ecija

Ilao, S. S. L. & Lastimosa, P. J. Eds. (1985) Research Techniques in Crops.

PCARRD, Book Series No.35

Philippine Rice Research Institute, (2006) Integrated Pest Management in Rice-Vegetable

Cropping Systems. Maligaya, Science City of Munoz, Nueva Ecija.

Reissig, W.H. (1986) Illustrated Guide to Integrated Pest Management in Rice in

Tropical Asia. IRRI. Laguna, Philippines

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 CROP PROTECTION 1. PRINCIPLES OF CROP PROTECTION

SUMMATIVE TEST
Answer the following questions honestly. Write your answers on a sheet of paper.

1. It is a science that deals with the nature, causes, and control plant diseases:
a. entomology c. plant pathology
b. agronomy d. horticulture
2. The ultimate objective of plant pathology.
a. minimize or reduce plant disease c. survey plant disease
b. identify plant disease d. measure plant disease
3. The Koch Postulates is a set of 4 rules that must be satisfied to prove the of a microorganism
a. disease c. survival
b. pathogenicity d. severity
4. In Koch's rule of identifying disease causing organism, which in the choices is the third step?
a. The suspected causal agent (bacterium, etc.) must be isolated from the diseased host
organism (plant) and grown in pure culture.
b. When a pure culture of the suspected causal agent is inoculated into a healthy susceptible host
(plant), the host must reproduce the specific disease.
c. The same causal agent must be recovered again from the experimentally inoculated and
infected host, i.e., the recovered agent must have the same characteristics as the organism.
d. The suspected causal agent (bacterium or other microorganism) must be present in every
diseased organism (e.g., a plant) examined.
5. Symptoms involve the death of protoplast, cells or tissues
a. necrotic
b. hyperplastic
c. hypertophic
d. histological
6. Citrus exocortis and cadang-cadang are believed to be caused by
a. viroids
b. mycoplasma
c. viruses
d. fastidious vascular bacteria
7. Yellowing due to lack of light is
a. etiolation
b. chlorosis
c. sunscalding
d. scorch
8. Is a harmful alteration of the normal physiological and biochemical development of a plant
a. injury
b. disease
c. pathogenesis
d. colonization
9. Is a sharply defined variegated color pattern
a. mottle
b. chlorosis
c. mosaic
d. etiolation
10. Viruses are usually spread by ________ in the field
a. fungi
b. insects
c. nematodes
d. bacteria

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 CROP PROTECTION 1. PRINCIPLES OF CROP PROTECTION

11. The ability of the parasites/pathogen to cause disease is

a. pathogenesis
b. pathogenicity
c. pathogenic
d. aggressiveness
12. Parasites that could grow and reproduce only in living hosts
a. facultative saprophyte
b. saprophyte
c. obligate parasite
d. facultative parasite
13. The study of the increase of the disease on a population and the factors that influence them
a. epidemic
b. epidemiology
c. demography
d. geology
14. Some common hypoplastic symptoms are as follows ,except :
a. Chlorosis
b. Stunting
c. Rosetting
d. Suppression
15. Downy mildew of corn is caused by the fungus
a. Rhizobium trifolii
b. Agrobacterium tumefaciens
c. Pseudomonas syringae pv. Savastanoi
d. Peronosclerospora philippinensis

16. A virus that infects bacteria

a. Prophage
b. Baculovirus
c. Bacteriophage
d. Macrophage

17. The development of disease in a single plant or in plant populations goes through a sequence of
events called
a. Infection
b. Disease Cycle
c. Disease
d. Life Cycle

18. This refers to an extensive, usually sudden death of host tissue

a. Hypertrophy
b. Blight
c. Blast
d. Spot

19. This symptoms is also called a lesion.

a. spot
b. blight
c. hypertrophy
d. blast

20. Refers to the plant that is being attacked by a parasite

a. Host
b. Pathogen
c. Virulence
d. Suscept

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 CROP PROTECTION 1. PRINCIPLES OF CROP PROTECTION

21. When was cadang-cadang of coconut first observed?

a. 1818 c. 1819
b. 1918 d. 1998

22. Which among the following does not belong to the five major genera of phytopathogenic
bacteria?
a. Bacterium
b. Xanthomonas
c. Pseudomonas
d. Erwinia

23. Refer to the structures of the pathogen that are found associated with the infected host
a. symptoms
b. spores
c. mycelia
d. signs

24. Sign of a pathogen include

a. ooze
b. yellowing
c. etiolation
d. galls

25. A disease caused by too much bright light along with high temperatures is
a. etiolation
b. sunscalding
c. water logging
d. chlorosis

26. Nematodes feed only on root hairs and root tips

a. endoparasitic
b. ectoparasitic
c. sedentary
d. migratory

27. Agrobactrium tumefaciens causes disease of many plants

a. root rot
b. crown gall
c. stunting
d. scab

28. The time interval between inoculation and the appearance of disease symptoms
a. incubation period
b. latent period
c. sporulation
d. half-life

29. The following are mechanism of variability in fungi except

a. transduction
b. parasexualism
c. heterokaryosis
d. mutation

30. Main reproduction in bacteria is through

a. Cell division
b. Binary fission
c. Sclerotia
d. Sexual propagation

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 CROP PROTECTION 1. PRINCIPLES OF CROP PROTECTION

31. Mycology is a study of what specific organisms?

a. Nematodes
b. Fungi
c. Bacteria
d. Viroid

32. What crop in the Philippines where first viroid disease affected?
a. Cauliflowers
b. Banana
c. Coconut
d. Durian

33. Metalaxyl is a pesticide specific to kill

a. Insects
b. Fungi
c. Bacteria
d. Nematodes

34. Causal agent of bacterial soft rot of vegetables.

a. Pseudomonas solanacearum
b. Pectobacterium carotovorum
c. Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris
d. Pseudomonas syringae pv. Glycinea

35. Causal agent of bacterial wilt of tomato.

a. Pectobacterium carotovorum
b. Xanthomonas vesicatoria
c. Ralstonia solanacearum
d. Pseudomonad syringae pv. Syringae

36. Causal agent of bacterial leaf blight of rice

a. Xanthononas oryzae pv. oryzicola
b. Xanthomonas oryzae pv. Oryzae
c. Xanthomonad saccharin
d. Xanthomonas campestris

37. Causal agent of crown gall.

a. Rhizobium trifolii
b. Agrobacterium tumefaciens
c. Pseudomonas syringae pv. savastanoi
d. Agrobacterium rhizogenes

38. It is the causal agent of coffee rust.

a. Helminthosporium maydis
b. Xanthomonas translucens f. sp
c. Phytophthora infestans
d. Hemileia vastatrix

39. It is the causal agent of Bean rust.

a. Pyricularia oryzae Cav.
b. Xanthomonas oryzae
c. Uromyces phaseoli
d. Hemileia vastatrix

40. It is a termed apply to sudden death of young buds, inflorescence or young fruit.
a. blast c. chlorosis
b. blight d. blotch

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Identify the specific symptoms or sign and indicate whether it is a symptom or sign.
Example: Blast (symptom)

41. An overgrowth of tissue formed in response to injury in an effort of the plant to heal the wound.
42. An absorbing organ of a fungus which penetrates a host cell without penetrating the plasma
membrane.
43. Viscid mass made up of plant juices and often pathogen cells.
44. Term applied to the sudden death of young buds, inflorescence or young fruits.
45. An extensive, usually sudden, death of host tissue.

TRUE OR FALSE

46. Chemical control involves the use of herbicides for selective control of weeds with minimum or no
injury to the crop.
47. Antibiotic substance produced by a microorganism and effective against another microorganism
48. Emergence of root under field condition the radicle or root-like structure break through the seeds
and grow into the soil.
49. Germination refers to the resumption of growth of the embryo in the seed or of the young plantlet in
the tuber, bulb or rhizome.
50. Indigenous weeds all the native weeds of the country are coming under this group.

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