GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

Introduction of Biology
● What is Biology
○ The word biology is derived from the greek words/ bios/ meaning/
life/and/logos/meaning/study/ and is defined as the science of life and
living organisms. An organism is a living entity consisting of one cell e.g.
bacteria, or several cells e.g. animals, plants, and fungi.
● What can we learn about biology?
○ The structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of living
organisms. Biology is important because it helps us understand how living
things work and how they function and interact on multiple levels.
● Why does biology differ from other branches of science?
○ Biology is the science that studies living organisms and their interactions
with one another and their environments. Science attempts to describe and
understand the nature of the universe in whole or in part by rational means.
Science can be basic or applied.
Properties of Life
All living organisms share several keys characteristics of functions:
● Order
○ Organisms are highly organized, coordinated structures that consist of one
or more cells. Even very simple, single-celled organisms are remarkably
complex; inside each cell, atoms make up molecules; these, in turn, make up
cell organelles and other cellular inclusions.
● Sensitivity
○ Organisms respond to diverse stimuli. For example, plants can bend toward
a source of light, climb on fences and walls, or respond to touch. Even tiny
bacteria can move toward or away from chemicals (a process called
chemotaxis) or light (phototasix). Movement toward a stimulus is considered
a positive response, while movement away from a stimulus is considered a
negative response.
● Reproduction
○ Single-celled organisms reproduce by first duplicating their DNA, and then
dividing it equally as the cell prepares to divide to form two new cells.
Multicellular organisms often produce specialized reproductive germline
cells that will form new individuals. When reproduction occurs, genes
containing DNA are passed along to an organism’s offspring. These genes
ensure that the offspring will belong to the same species and will have
similar characteristics, such as size and shape.
 ● Adaptation
○ All living organisms exhibit a “fit” to their environment. Biologists refer to
this fit as adaptation, and it is a consequence of evolution by natural
selection, which operates in every lineage of reproducing organisms. All
adoptions enhance the reproductive potential of the individuals exhibiting
them, including their ability to survive to reproduce. Adaptations are not
constant. As an environment changes, natural selection causes the
characteristics of the individuals in a population to track those changes.
● Growth & Development
○ Organisms grow and develop following specific instructions coded for by
their genes. These genes provide instructions that will direct cellular growth
and development, ensuring species’ young will grow up to exhibit many of
the same characteristics as its parents.
● Homeostasis
○ In order to function properly, cells need to have an appropriate
concentration of diverse chemicals. These conditions may, however, change
from one moment to the next. Organisms are able to maintain internal
conditions within a narrow range almost constantly. Despite environmental
changes, through homeostasis (literally, “steady-state”)-the ability of an
organism to maintain constant internal conditions. For example, an
organism needs to regulate body temperature through a process known as
thermoregulation. Organisms that live in cold climates, such as the polar
bear, have body structures that help them withstand low temperatures and
conserve body heat. Structures that aid in this type of insulation include fur,
feathers, blubber, and fat. In hot climates, organisms have methods (such as
perspiration in humans or panting in dogs) that help them to shed excess
body heat.
● Energy Process
○ All organisms use a source of energy for their metabolic activities. Some
organisms capture energy from the sun and convert it into chemical energy
in food (photosynthesis); others use chemical energy in molecules they take
in as food (cellular respiration).
Levels of Biological Organization
● Atoms
○ The smallest unit of the matter still retains the properties of that type of
matter or element. (3 main parts of an atom: Protons, Neutrons, and
Electrons)
● Molecule
○ Made up of 2 or more atoms. Examples include H20 and C6H12O6.
 ● Cell
○ The basic unit of life. Examples are Red blood cells, epithelial cells, and nerve
cells.
● Tissue
○ A group of similar cells that perform a specific function.
● Organ
○ A structure usually composed of several tissue types performs a functional
unit.
● Body system
○ Two or more organs working together in the execution of a specific bodily
function. (example like reproductive)
● Organism
○ An individual living thing composed of many cells.
● Population
○ All the members of a species living in the same area.
● Community
○ Populations of different species that live in the same area and interact with
one another.
● Ecosystem
○ A community together with its nonliving surroundings. (biotic and abiotic
system)
● Biomes
○ A biome is a large community of vegetation and wildlife adapted to a specific
climate. (The five majors of biomes are aquatic, grassland, forest, desert, and
tundra.
● Biosphere
○ All life on earth and the nonliving portions of the earth that support life.
Knowledge Check
● Atoms make up molecules, which make up cells, which make up tissues, and so on.
○ Order/Organization
● A kitten uses the energy from its mother’s milk to fuel its growth
○ Energy Processes/Use
● Your kidneys regulate your body’s water balance by adjusting the concentration of
your urine.
○ Homeostasis
● An acorn germinates, develops into an oak seedling, and, at maturity, reproduces
sexuality to produce its own acorns.
○ Reproduction and Growth & Development
● Increasing numbers of bacteria survive treatment with antibiotic drugs.
 ○ Evolution
Scientific Inquiry/Method

CELL

Unicellular - organisms that made up of only one cell

Multicellular - organisms that have two or more cells

History of the Cell

● The cell was first discovered and named by Robert Hooke in 1665. He
remarked that it looked strangely similar to cellula or small rooms which
monks inhabited, thus deriving the name. However, what Hooke actually saw
was the dead cell walls of plant cells (cork) as it appeared under the
microscope.
Cell Theory
● The unified cell theory states that: all living things are composed of one or more
cells; the cell is the basic unit of life; and new cells arise from existing cells. Rudolf
Virchow later made important contributions to this theory. Schleiden and Schwann
proposed spontaneous generation (also called abiogenesis) was later disproven.
Rudolf Virchow famously stated “Omnis cellula e cellula”... ”All cells only arise from
pre-existing cells. “The parts of the theory that did not have to do with the origin of
 cells, however, held up to scientific scrutiny and are widely agreed upon by the
scientific community today.

Cell Theory
● All known living things are made up of cells.
● The cell is structural & functional unit of all living things.
● All cells come from pre-existing cells by division.
● Cells contains hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell
division.
● All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
● All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life occurs within cells.

Timeline of Cell Discovery

● 1595 - Jansen credited with 1st compound microscope.
● 1655 - Hooke described “cells” in cork.
● 1674 - Leeuwenhoek discovered protozoa. He saw bacteria some 9 years later.
● 1833 - Brown described the cell nucleus in cells of the orchid.
● 1838 - Schleiden and Schwann proposed cell theory.
● 1840 - Albrecht von Roelliker realized that sperm cells and egg cells are also cells.
● 1856 - N. Pringsheim observed how a sperm cell penetrated an egg cell.
● 1858 - Rudolf Virchow (physician, pathologist, and anthropologist) expounds his
famous conclusion: Omnis cellula e cellula, that is cells develop only from existing
cells [cells come from preexisting cells]
● 1857 - Kolliker described chromosome behavior during mitosis.
● 1883 - Germ cells are haploid, chromosome theory of heredity.
● 1898 - Golgi described the Golgi apparatus.
 ● 1938 - Behrens used differential centrifugation to separate nuclei from cytoplasm.
● 1939 - Siemens produced the first commercial transmission electron microscope.
● 1952 - Gey and coworkers established a continuous human cell line.
● 1955 - Eagle systematically defined the nutritional needs of animal cells in culture.
● 1957 - Meselson, Stahl, and Vinograd developed density gradient centrifugation in
cesium chloride solutions for separating nucleic acids.
● 1965 - Ham introduced a defined serum-free medium. Cambridge Instruments
produced the first commercial scanning electron microscope.
● 1976 - Sato and colleagues publish papers showing that different cell lines require
different mixtures of hormones and growth factors in serum-free media.
● 1981 - Transgenic mice and fruit flies are produced. Mouse embryonic stem cell line
established.
● 1995 - Tsien identifies mutant of GFP with enhanced spectral properties.
● 1998 - Mice are cloned from somatic cells.
● 1999 - Hamilton and Baulcombe discover siRNA as part of post-transcriptional gene
silencing (PTGS) in plants.

Types of cells

Prokaryotic Cell
- Pro = before
- Karyon = nucleus
- Lack distinct nuclei and have few organelles that are not membrane-bound
e.g. bacteria, cyanobacteria
Eukaryotic Cell
- Eu = true
- Karyon = nucleus
 - Have distinct nuclei and contain several membrane-bound organelles e.g.
animals, plants, fungi
EUKARYOTIC VS. PROKARYOTIC CELLS

Characteristics Eukaryotic Cells Prokaryotic Cells

Definition Any cell that contains a Any unicellular organism

clearly defined nucleus that does not contain a
and membrane-bound membrane-bound
organelles nucleus of organelles

Examples Animals, plants, fungi, Bacteria and Archaea

and protist cells

Nucleus Present (membrane Absent (nucleoid region)

bound)

Cell size Large (10-100 Small (less than a

micrometers) micrometer to 5
micrometers)

DNA Replication Highly regulated with Replicates entire genome

selective origins and at once
sequences

Organisms Type Usually multicellular Unicellular

Chromosomes More than one One long single loop of

DNA and plasmids

Ribosomes Large Small

Growth Rate/Generation Slower faster

Time

Organelles Present Absent

Ability to Store All eukaryotes have this All prokaryotes have this
Hereditary information ability ability

Cell Wall Simple: Present in plants Complex: Present in all

and fungi prokaryotes

Plasma Membrane Present Present

Cytoplasm Present Present

Types of Eukaryotic Cell

Cells of eukaryotes are complex and highly organized because of the presence of
various organelles

Parts and Functions of Animal and Plant

PARTS OF THE CELL

Cell Wall
Structure:
It is nonliving component composed of
cellulose
Funtions:
Provides mechanical support and
maintains cell shape in plant cells

(Only seen in plants)

Plasma Membrane
Structure:
It is flexible and elastic composed of
double layers of phospholipids,
proteins, carbohydrates, and steroids
Function:
Selectively permeable Regulates entry
and exit of materials

(also called as cell membrane)

Mitochondrion
Structure:
Double-membrane structure
Has a folded cristae
Powerhouse of the cell
Function:
Provides energy for the cell in the form
of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

(pl: Mitochondria)

Vacuole
Structure:
A compartment covered by a single
membrane called tonoplast
Function:
Store water, food, or waste for the cells

(bigger in plant cell, smaller in animal

cell)
Golgi Apparatus
Structure:
Consists of stacks of single membranes
that are connected to the plasma
membrane and endoplasmic reticulum
Function:
Sorts, packages, and modifies proteins
for secretions

(also called golgi body and golgi

complex)

Cytoplasm
Structure:
The complex fluid that fills the cell
Function:
Matrix of the different cellular
organelles.
Distribution of materials throughout
the cell due to cyclosis.

(cytosol - fluid present in the cell

membrane)

Nucleus
Structure:
It is the spherical body that is
composed of nuclear membrane,
nucleolus, nuclear plasm and
chromosome
Function:
The control center of the cell
Directs and coordinate all
cellular activities
Nuclear membrane:
Separates the nuclear contents from
the contents of the cytoplasm
Nucleolus:
Synthesis of RNA and production of
ribosomes
Nucleoplasm/Nuclear sap:
Matrix of the chromosomes
and nucleolus

Chromosomes
Structure:
They are highly coiled structures that
form a network over the nucleoplasm
Function:
Carriers of genes responsible in
transmitting hereditary characteristics
(DNA)

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Structure:
Network of channels composed of a
single membrane that may be bumpy if
it contains ribosomes (RER) or smooth
(SER) if does not contain
ribosomes
Function:
Play an important role in the formation
of the skeletal framework

Chloroplasts
Structure:
It is the double-membrane structure
that contains chlorophyll pigments
ribosomes
Function:
Provides the green color of plants;
functions for photosynthesis

(only present in plants)

Chloroplasts
Structure:
It is the double-membrane structure
that contains chlorophyll pigments
ribosomes
Function:
Provides the green color of plants;
functions for photosynthesis

(only present in plants)

Centrioles
Structure:
Two small rods that lie at right angles
to each other
Function:
Formation of spindle fibers during cell
division; functions as the anchor for
the cytoskeletons

(only present in animals)

Lysosome
Structure:
Single-membrane compartment
containing powerful hydrolytic
enzymes
Function:
Suicidal bag of the cell
Simplifies and breaks down complex
materials

(bigger in animal cells, smaller in plant

cells)
Ribosomes
Structure:
Found attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum or free floating in the
cytoplasm
Function:
It is used for RNA synthesis to form
amino acids; protein factories

SHAPES OF CELLS

Spherical
Description:
Round or oval
Example(s):
Human red blood cells (erythrocytes)

Squamous
Description:
Flat or tile like
Example(s):
Human squamous cells
Found in the skin

Stellate
Description:
Star-like
Example(s):
Nerve cell or Neuron

Spiderlike
Description:
With several cytoplasmic
extensions
Example(s):
Bone cells
Columnar
Description:
Rectangular set upright
Example(s):
Columnar cells
Cells in the stomach

Fusiform/Spindle
Description:
Tapering at both ends
Example(s):
Smooth muscle cells
Found in the heart

Microorganisms
● are found everywhere on Earth
● can live in land, water and air
● according to microbiologists: “microbes can be found everywhere because
they are highly adaptable to extreme environmental conditions”
● always associated with diseases, it is called pathogens
● however, some of them are beneficial and needed
● by living things to survive
● they are very diverse

Bacteria
● knowledge about bacteria
● started in 1950 when electron microscope was invented
● it is simple and unicellular
● only few bacteria were studied and identified
● they obtain nutrients from their environment
● some of them are free-living (saprotrophs)
● others require the presence of hosts in survival (parasitic)
Bacteria: Parts
Bacteria cells have the following
structural components:
A. Cell envelope
1. cell wall
2. plasma membrane
3. capsule
B. Cytoplasm
1. chromosome
2. ribosome
3. granules
C. Appendages
1. Flagella
2. Pili or fimbriae

Bacteria: Hans C.J. Gram

Distinct Groups of Bacteria:
Gram-positive bacteria
-retained the purple crystal violet
stain when subjected to the
Gram-staining procedure
Gram-negative bacteria
-do not retain the crystal violet stain
Thus, they are
counterstained by safranin
(a dye that gives them the reddish of
pinkish color)
Bacteria: Shapes
- Cocci – round bacterial cell
● Coccus
(Chlamydia trachomatis)
● Diplococci
(Neisseria meningitidis)
● Tetrad
(Micrococcus leteus)
● Sarcina (Octad)
(Sarcina ventriculi)
● Streptococcus
(Streptococcus pyogenes)
● Staphylococcus
(Staphylococcus aureus)
- Bacilli– rod-shaped or
cigar-shaped bacteria
- Spirilla – curved (vibrio), twisted,
or spiral-shaped bacteria with
fairly rigid bodies

Bacteria: Reproduction
Asexual and Sexual
Asexual reproduction:
● Binary fission
● Budding
● Spore-formation
Sexual reproduction:
● Genetic recombination (strain)

Bacteria: Importance
Protists
● eukaryotic organisms
● consists of diverse groups of organisms that have different cellular
structures, with different means of locomotion and belonging to different
trophic levels.
● mostly unicellular organisms
animal-like protists
● protozoans
● unicellular organisms
● they can move about their environment
● they have flagella, cilia or pseudopodia
● e.g. Amoeba, Trypanosoma,
● Tritonymph, Plasmodium
plant-like protists
● contains chlorophyll pigments
● can carry out photosynthesis
● e.g. algae, Phytoplankton, dinoflagellates

Fungi
fungus-like protists
● eukaryotic and multicellular organisms
● only unicellular organism is yeasts
● it can be beneficial and harmful
 ● e.g. mushrooms

MACROMOLECULES

Macromolecules
● Large molecules, necessary for life, that built from smaller organic
molecules
○ Carbohydrates
○ Lipids
○ Proteins
○ Nucleic Acids
Dehydration Synthesis
● “To put together while losing water”
○ Monomers - a subunit of macromolecules
○ Polymers - a combination of monomers using covalent bonds to form
larger molecules

Hydrolysis
● “To split water”
● A reaction in which a water molecule is used burning breakdown
○ One gain hydrogen atom (H+)
○ One gain a hydroxyl molecule (OH-)
Dehydration and Hydrolysis
● Are catalyzed, or sped up by specific enzymes; dehydration reactions involve
the formation of new bonds, requiring energy, while hydrolysis reactions
break bonds and release energy.

Remember:
● Each type of macromolecule is broken down by a specific enzyme:
○ Carbohydrate - amylase
○ Protein - peptidase
○ Lipid - lipase

Carbohydrates
● Provides energy to the body, particularly through glucose, a simple sugar
that is a component of starch and an ingredient in many staple food.
● It plays an important role in humans, animals, and plants.
Molecular Structure
● Carbohydrates can be represented by the stoichiometric formula (CH2O)n,
where n is the number of carbons in the molecule.
○ Components of carbon - carbon,
○ Components of water - hydrate
● It can be classified into three (3)
○ Monosaccharides
○ Disaccharides
○ Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
● Mono - one, sacchar - sweet
● Simple sugar
● Glucose
● The number of carbons usually ranges from three to seven
● Most monosaccharide names end with the suffix -ose
● If the sugar has an aldehyde group (R-CHO - aldose
● Ketone (RC(=O)R) - ketose
 ● Depending on the number of carbons in the sugar, they may be known as:
○ Trioses
○ Hexoses
○ Pentoses
Glucose
● C6H12O16
● An important source of energy
● During cellular respiration, energy is released from glucose, and that energy
is used to help make ATP
● Plant synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and water.
● Excess glucose is often stored as starch that is catabolized (the breakdown
of larger molecules by cells) by humans and other animals that feed on
plants.
Glucose
● Galactose part of lactose, or milk sugar
● Fructose found in sucrose, in fruit
● Glucose, Fructose, Galactose differs in strcutural and chemical components
● Isomers - same empirical formula differ in structural formula
● Glucose and Galactose are aldoses
● Fructose is ketose

Disaccharides
● Di - two, sacchar - sweet
● Form when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction
● During this process, the hydroxyl group of one monosaccharide combines
with the hydrogen of another monosaccharide, releasing a molecule of water
and forming a covalent bond.
● Glycosidic Bond - covalent bond formed between a carbohydrate molecule
and another molecule
● Also called as glycosidic linkages (alpha or beta)
● Common disaccharides:
○ Lactose - consist of monomers glucose and galactose (milk)
○ Maltose - two glucose (malt sugar)
○ Sucrose - glucose and fructose (table sugar)
Polysaccharides
● Long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds
● The chain may be branched or unbranched and it may contain different
types of monosaccharides
● starch , glycogen, cellulose, chitin are examples of polysaccharide
● Starch - amylose and amylopectin
● Starch is made up of glucose monomers that are joined by a (alpha) 1-1 or 1-6
glycosidic bonds

● Glycogen - storage form of glucose in human and other vertebrates and is

made up of monomers of glucose. Animal equivalent of starch and is highly
branched molecule usually stored in liver and muscle cells
● Cellulose - most abundant natural biopolymer. The cell wall of plants - for
support. It is linked by B (beta) 1-4 glycosidic bonds
 ● Chitin - fungal cell wall

CELL CYCLE
The Stages of the Cell

Growth and development are one of the characteristics of living things. Cell
division has a huge role for this to happen.

The Stages of the Cell

● The cell cycle is divided into two (2), the interphase which is the longest
phase in the cell cycle, and the cell division which consist of two (2) phases,
the nuclear division (mitotic cell division and meiotic cell division) and the
 cytokinesis. During the nuclear division, the genetic material in the nucleus
is divided while in cytokinesis happens after the mitotic cell division.
● The interphase is divided into three stages: Gap 1 (G1) phase, Synthesis (S)
phase, and Gap 2 (G2) phase. The Gap 1 (G1) phase is the first stage of the
interphase and is the longest phase in the interphase. The cell in this phase
increases in mass/and or the size, and organelles increase in number in
preparation for cell division.
● After the G1 phase is the Synthesis (S) phase which is the crucial part of the
interphase because of the synthesis of the DNA. It begins with the
replication of the DNA, after replicating it, the cell has twice as many
chromosomes s before.
● When the S phase is done, the next and last one in the interphase is the Gap
2 (G2) phase. In G2 phase the proteins are being synthesize and the cell
continues to increase in size. The chromosomes start to condense and
become visible.
Stages in the Interphase

The Stages of the Cell: Stages in Mitosis

● Mitosis (or mitotic cell division) is part of the cell cycle after interphase. This
cycle is also known as one of the phases in the nuclear division. Cell that
undergo mitosis are the autosomes or the body cells. This has four (4) stages:
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase. This process results in
identical diploid cells.
In Prophase, chromosomes are
condensed and become visible. Spindle
fibers emerge from the centrosomes.
Nuclear envelope breaks down.
Nucleolus disappears.

In Metaphase, spindle fibers are fully

developed, centrosomes are at the
opposite poles. Chromosomes are
aligned at the equatorial plate. Sister
chromatin is attached to a spindle
fiber.

In Anaphase, chromosomes are being

separated pulled towards the opposite
poles forming chromatid.

In Telophase, chromatids ar enow at

the opposite poles decondense.
Nuclear envelope is forming again. The
spindle fibers are disintegrating.

The Stages of the Cell: Cytokinesis

● Cytokinesis is happened right after the mitotic cell division. The physical
process of the cell division, which divides the cytoplasm of a parental cell
into two daughter cells. It occurs concurrently with two types of nuclear
division called mitosis and meiosis, which occur in animal cells.

The Stages of the Cell: Stages in Meiosis

● Meiosis (or meiotic cell division) is one of the nuclear divisions. Cells that
undergo meiosis are the reproductive cells or sex cells (sperm cell and egg
cell), generally call gametes. Meiosis is divided into Meiosis I, Interkinesis 1,
and Meiosis II.
 ● Meiosis I is composed of stages: Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, and
Telophase I. Interkinesis I is a short stop before to proceed to Meiosis II
which is composed of the stages: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, and
Telophase II. this process results in unique haploid cells.
In Prophase I, the nuclear membrane
and the nucleolus start to disappear
and the cell shows visible
chromosomes. Spindle fibers become
visible. Sister chromatids held together
by a centrosomere forming
chromosomes and this is called dyad.

This phase is characterized by synapses or pairing of homologous chromosomes.

These pair of homologous, oe came from the father and the other one from the
mother, these four sister chromatids called tetrad. Crossing over takes place
between two non-sister chromatids along a point called chiasma.

In Metaphase I, the paired homologous

chromosomes (tetrad) are moved by
the spindle fibers to the equator of the
cell. The homologous pairs of
chromosomes remain together.

In Anaphase I, homologous pairs of

chromosomes (dyads) separates and
migrate toward their respective poles.
In Telophase 1, two daughter cells are
completely divided. The number of
chromosomes in both cells is the same.
Chromosomes become less visible and
the nucleus and nucleolus are
reappearing.

In Prophase II, the nuclear envelope

and nucleoli disappears, and the
chromatids start to shorten and
thicken. The centrioles move to the
opposite poles and spindle fibers are
formed.

In Metaphase II, the chromosomes

moved to the equatorial plate. Each
chromosome is composed of sister
chromatids that are joined by a
centromere and are attached to the
spindle fiber.

In Anaphase II, centromeres joining the

chromatids divided, allowing
microtubules attached to the
kinetochores to pull the sister
chromatids apart and now called sister
chromosomes move to the opposite
poles.

In Telophase II, spindle fibers are

dissolved. Nuclear membrane forms
around the chromosomes of each
daughter cell. Cleavage furrow
eventually produces a total of two
daughter cells, each with haploid set of
chromosomes.

At the end of the process, a total of four

(4) new cells with haploid
chromosomes are produced.
The Stages of the Cell: Disorders and diseases that result from the malfunctions of
the malfunction of the cell during the cell cycle
Disorders and diseases Malfunction during the Physical Appearance
cell cycle

Trisomy 21 (Down Excess chromosomes in Cognitive delays, but the

syndrome) the 21st pair intellectual disability is
usually mild to moderate

Triple X Syndrome Excess X chromosomes in Female with mild

(Trisomy X) each cell of the female developmental delays and
irregularities in the
menstrual cycle

Where boys and men are Longer legs, shorter

Klinefelter’s Syndrome born with an extra X torso and broader hips
chromosomes compared with other
boys. Absent, delayed or
incomplete puberty.

Cancer Uncontrolled cell division

Tumor Mass of cells that grow

and divide without any
obvious functions in the
body

Benign tumor Cells stay together having

no effect on surrounding
tissue

Cells interfere with the

Malignant Tumor function of surrounding
cell
ENERGY

Energy
● is defined as the ability to do work (energy forms: chemical, electrical,
radiant, mechanical, thermal, nuclear, and kinetic)

Eco-Words
Photosystem
● Either of two photochemical reaction centers consisting chiefly of
photosynthetic pigments complexed with protein and occurring in
chloroplasts.
Phosphorylation
● The process of phosphorylating a chemical compound either by reaction
with inorganic phosphate or by transfer of phosphate from another organic
phosphate.
Pigments
● The green photosynthetic pigment found chiefly in the chloroplasts of
plants and occurring especially as a blue-black ester or a dark green ester.
Anabolism
● The constructive part of metabolism concerned especially with
macromolecular synthesis.
Catabolism
● Degradative metabolism involving the release of energy and resulting in the
breakdown of complex materials (such as proteins or lipids) within the
organism.
Electron Carriers
● Substances that can readily accepts and release high-energy electrons.

The flow of Energy and Matter in Ecosystem

Ecosystem
● The complex of a community of organisms and its environment functioning
as an ecological unit.
● Something (such as a network of businesses) considered to resemble an
ecological ecosystem especially because of its complex interdependent
parts.
Organisms and how they obtain energy
● Living organisms obtain energy from the food they eat.
● Energy is vital for life.
Energy
● Is life. It is a fundamental entity of nature that is transferred between parts
of a system in the production of physical change within the system and
usually regarded as the capacity for doing work.
Autotrophs
● Or the self-feeders are organisms that can produce their own food.
● Plants can sustain their energy by making their own food.
● Classified into: Photoautotrophs and Chemoautotrophs.
Photoautotrophs
● Organisms that can produce their own food through the process of
photosynthesis.
● Examples: plants, cyanobacteria, and euglena.

Chemoautotrophs
● It can also make food.
● Use the energy from chemical substances in synthesizing food.
● Examples: archaebacteria found on the seafloor of the ocean.
Chemosynthesis
● The process of using the energy from inorganic substances like sulfur,
ammonia, nitrate ions,
Heterotrophs
● Organisms that feed on autotrophs or other heterotrophs to obtain the
energy they need.

Metabolism and its phase

Metabolism
● The overall chemical reactions that happen in an organism.
● It has two phases: anabolism and catabolism.
Anabolism
● Endergonic reaction
● E.g.: Photosynthesis
Catabolism
● Exergonic reaction
● E.g.: Cellular Respiration

Photosynthesis
● Synthesis of chemical compounds with the aid of radiant energy and
especially light.
● Essential for all life on Earth; both plants and animals depend on it.

Carbon dioxide water Glucose Oxygen

● During the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide enters through the
stomata, water is absorbed by the root hairs from the soil and is carried to
 the leaves through the xylem vessels. Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy
from the sun to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.

Chloroplast & Pigments

● Chlorophyll and carotene are found in chloroplast.
● Thylakoids - thin, flat, and disk shape.
● Stroma - jelly-like fluid
● Granum - a stuck or pile of thylakoid
Other important factors in Photosynthesis
Pigment
● Located in the chloroplasts
● Called chlorophyll
Energy
● Powers the entire photosynthetic reaction
● Called photons
Temperature
● Photosynthetic process occurs within the range of 50 degrees celsius - 450
degrees celsius.
Electron carriers
● Substances that can readily accept and release high-energy electrons
Enzyme
● Substances that speed up or slow down specific reactions related to
photosynthesis.

Photosystem
● Is the functional and structural unit involved in the photosynthetic reaction.
● It is consist of the following parts:
○ Reaction center
○ Electron transport chain
○ Antenna molecules
Light Energy

Pigments
Light Reactions of Photosynthesis

● The chemical equation in the light reaction of photosynthesis can be

reduced to:

2H2O + 2NADP+ + 3ADP + 3Pi → O2 + 2NADPH + 3ATP

Photosystem
● Two types of photosystem: I and II
● Photosystem I, the reaction center is type of chlorophyll a known as P700
(phytochrome 700) that can absorb red light with a wavelength of 700 nm.
● Photosystem II, the reaction center is another type of chlorophyll a known as P680
(phytochrome 680) that can absorb red light with a wavelength of 680 nm.
CAM amd C4 Photosynthesis

Dark Reaction of Photosynthesis

 ● The chemical equation in the light reaction of photosynthesis can be reduced to:

3CO2 + 6 NADPH + 5H2O + 9ATP → G3P + 2H+ + 6 NADP+ + 9 ADP + 8 Pi

Carbon Cycle

RUDP
 ● RuDP carboxylase –> ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase. (Science: enzyme) A
copper protein that catalyses the formation of 2 moles of
3-phosphoglycerate from ribulose 1,5-biphosphate in the presence of carbon
dioxide and is responsible for carbon dioxide fixation in photosynthesis.

Cellular Respiration

Overview:
● Living cells require energy from outside sources
● Some animals, such as chimpanzees, obtain energy by eating plants, and
some animals feed on other organisms that eat plants.
● What is the role of photosynthesis and cellular respiration in the flow of
energy from the sun, to the biosphere, and into the environment?

Eco-Words
● Mitochondria - are the so called powerhouse of the cell
● Fermentation - an enzymatically controlled anaerobic breakdown of an
energy-rich compound (such as a carbohydrate to carbon dioxide and
alcohol or to an organic acid)
● Reactants - one of the substances that is present at the start of a chemical
reaction and takes part in the reaction.
 ● Phosphorylation - the process of phosphorylating a chemical compound
either by reaction with inorganic phosphate or by transfer of phosphate form
another organic phosphate.
● Krebs Cycle - a sequence of reaction in the living organisms in which
oxidation of acetic acid or acetyl equivalent provides energy for storage in
phosphate bonds (as in ATP)
● Chemiosmosis - a sequence of reactions in the living organism in which
oxidation of acetic acid or acetyl equivalent provides energy for storage in
phosphate bonds (an in ATP)
○ Also called as citric acid cycle, tricarboxylic acid cycle.

Mitochondria
● The powerhouse of the cell
● Are membrane-bound cell organelles (mitochondrion, singular) that generate
most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell’s biochemical
reactions. Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in a small
molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
A. Outer membrane - separates mitochondria from the cytoplasm.
B. Inter membrane space - has higher amounts of H+ ions because of the
ETC.
C. Inner membrane - folded into cristae to increase surface area.
● Impermeable to H+ ions
● Contains electron carries and ATP synthase
● Matrix - contains enzymes for the Krebs cycle
● H+ ions get pumped from the matrix to the intermembrane
through the proteins in the inner membrane.

Cellular Respiration
● The main role of cellular respiration is the release of energy stored in glucose
molecule to produce ATP.
● The process cellular respiration and the number of ATP produced per
glucose molecule depends on whether oxygen is present or not.
○ ATP - adenosine triphosphate - it stores and release energy for many
cellular processes.
 Glucose Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water Energy

Overall process
A. Organic compounds + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water + energy
B. Food is the fuel of cellular respiration. Food = organic compounds
(carbons/fats/proteins)
C. Cellular respiration is a catabolic pathway (it releases energy by breaking
down complex molecules)
D. We will the breakdown of glucose

ATP is recycled by cells

A. ATP +H20 -> ADP + Pi + energy
B. 1. ATP is hydrolyzed to from ADP. inorganic phosphate and energy.
B. 2. It is an exergonic reaction.
C. The inorganic phosphate will attach to another ATP molecule.
D. 1. The new ATP molecule is phosphorylated ADP + Pi -> ATP + H20
D. 2. This is an endergonic reaction.

Redox Reaction
E. Cellular respiration involves the movement of electrons (gain or loss)
Oxidation
● Gain oxygen
● Lose electrons
Reduction
● Lose oxygen
● Gain electrons
Remember: “OIL RIG and LEO GER”
 F. The most common carrier is NAD+
G. Hydrogen atoms have one proton and one electron
NAD+ + 2H -> NADH + H+
Determine which molecules where oxidized and which where reduced.
OXIDATION REDUCTION

Gain oxygen Lose oxygen

Lose hydrogen Ganin hydrogen

Lose electrons Gain electrons

Cellular Respiration
● Cellular respiration that makes use of oxygen gas to break glucose to
produce ATP is referred to as aerobic cellular respiration (e.g. animals and
plants)
● Cellular respiration that can yield ATP molecules without oxygen is referred
to as anaerobic cellular respiration (e.g. microbes)

Glycolysis
● splitting of sugars
● It is also the first step of cellular respiration
● Breakdown of glucose into pyruvate molecules.
● Takes place in cytoplasm of the cell
● Oxygen is not required in glycolysis
Review
● Explain what is happening during each step of the reaction. See the red book
to help you with your explanation.
● How many ATP molecules are gained?
● How many NADH + H+ are gained?
● When energy is released, what is formed?
- after glycolysis, if the oxygen is present, the pyruvate molecules move from
the cytoplasm to the mitochondria. Then they go through oxidative
decarboxylation (the link reaction)
- The next step is the Krebs Cycle
Krebs Cycle
- the metabolic process that completes the breakdown of glucose
- occurs in the mitochondria and starts with pyruvate molecules that were
produced in the glycolysis
- requires oxygen, thus it is part of aerobic respiration
- it is a series of electron carriers located in the inner membrane of the
mitochondria
- General electron pathway
- food -> NADH -> ETC -> oxygen
- NADH supplies two electrons to the ETC
- NAD+ + 2H -> NADH + H+
- In the ETC electrons move through the chain reducing and oxidizing the
molecules as they pass
- The ETC is made mostly of proteins.
- The NADH molecules transport the electrons to the ETC
- FADH2 is added at a lower energy level
- The electrons move down the mitochondrial membrane through the electron
carriers
- A concentration gradient is generated positive in the intermembrane space
- At the end of the ETC oxygen accepts hydrogen and one electron to form
water
- The H+ ions that passed through the proteins into the cytoplasm flow
through ATO synthase into the mitochondrial matrix
- The energy generated by the proton movement creates ATP by joining ADP
and Pi
- If no oxygen is available the ETC stops
- NADH is not converted back to NAD+ and FADH2 is not converted to
NAD+
- If no NAD+ is available for oxidative decarboxylation the Krebs cycle
cannot occur
- Glycolysis continues because oxygen is not required
- NADH produces 3 ATP per molecule FADH2 produces 2 ATP per molecule
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