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Auwal Ahmad

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 International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Protection
2014; 1(5): 76-81
Published online January 20, 2015 (http://www.openscienceonline.com/journal/ijemp)

Dyeing of textiles with eco-friendly natural dyes:

A review
Ado A.1, Yahaya H.2, Kwalli A. A.1, Abdulkadir R. S.3
1
Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria
2
Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria
3
Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria

Email address
amabdul2008@yahoo.com (Abdulkadir R. S.)

To cite this article

Ado A., Yahaya H., Kwalli A. A., Abdulkadir R. S.. Dyeing of Textiles with Eco-Friendly Natural Dyes: A Review. International Journal
of Environmental Monitoring and Protection. Vol. 1, No. 5, 2014, pp. 76-81.

Abstract
The use of natural dyes for textile dyeing purpose decreased to a large extent after the discovery of synthetic dyes in 1856.
As a result with a distinct lowering in synthetic dyestuff costs, the natural dyes were virtually neglected at the beginning of
twentieth century presently there is an excessive use of synthetic dyes estimated at around 10,000,000.00 tons per annum,
the production and application of which releases large amount of wastes and unfixed colorants to the environment thereby
causing serious health hazards and disturbing the eco-balance of nature. Due to the current economic and environmental
consciousness, research in this front should be titled towards the use of natural dyes for dyeing textile materials. This article
gives an in depth review and analysis on the categories of textile materials suitable for dyeing with natural dyes, equipments
for home and small scale commercial natural dyeing of textile, extraction and mordents used in dyeing textile with natural
dyes, conventional and non-conventional method of natural dyeing of textile as well as colour fastness properties of natural
dyes. This could help in explaining the merits associated with the use of natural dyes other than synthetic dyes in textile
dyeing to overcome the challenges of using synthetic dyes in textile dyeing and as well portray the benefits of using natural
dyes.

Keywords
Dyeing, Eco-Friendly Natural Dyes, Mordants, Synthetic, Textiles

use of the blue dye, wood, beloved by the ancient Bristons

1. Introduction
Dyeing is an ancient art which predates written records. Its
practice could be traced back during the Bronze age in
Europe. Primitive dyeing techniques included sticking plants
to fabric or rubbing crushed pigments onto cloth. The method
became more sophisticated with time and techniques using
natural dyes from crushed fruits, berries and other plant
materials which were boiled into the fabric while some light
and water fastness (resistance) tests were developed (Jothi,
2008).
Some of the well known ancient dyes included madder, a
red dye obtained from the roots of the Rubiatinctorium, blue
indigo from the leaves of Indigoferatinctoria, yellow from
the stigmas of the saffron plant (Crocus sativuls L). The first
may have originated in pales tine where it was found growing
wild. The most famous and highly prized colour through the
ages was trian purple, noted in the Bible, a dye obtained from
the spiny dye-murex shellfish. The Phoenician prepared it
until the seventh century, when Arab conquerors destroyed
their dyeing installations. A bright red called cochineal was
obtained from an insect native to Mexico. All these produced
high quality dark colours. Until the mid-19th century all
dyestuff were made from natural materials mainly vegetable
and animal matter (Siva, 2007).
However, the use of natural dyes for textile dyeing
purposes decreased to a large extent after the discovery of
synthetic dyes in 1856. As a result, with a distinct lowering in
synthetic dyestuff coasts, the natural dyes were virtually
77 Ado A. et al.: Dyeing of Textiles with Eco-Friendly Natural Dyes: A Review
neglected at the beginning of twenties century (Saravananand
Chandramoham, 2011).
Recently there has been a revival of the growing interest
on the application of natural dyes on natural fibres due to
world-wide environmental consciousness (Samanta and
Agarwal, 2009). They also reported that recently a number
of commercial dyers and small textile export houses have
started looking at the possibilities of using natural dyes for
regular basis dyeing and printing of textile to overcome
environmental pollution associated with synthetic dyes.
In many of the world’s developing countries however,
natural dyes can offer not only a rich and varied source of
dyestuff but also the responsibility of an income though
sustainable harvest and sale of these dye plants (Jothi, 2008).
Many dyes are available from tree waste or can be easily
grown in market gardens. In areas where synthetic dyes,
mordents (fixatives) and other additives are imported and
therefore relatively expensive, natural dyes can offer an
attractive alternative (Ghorpadeet al, 2000).
However, the knowledge required for sourcing and
extracting such dyes and mordents is, however, often not
available as extensive research work is required to identify
suitable plants minerals, etc. In Zambia for example, there is
a wealth of plants available for producing naturaldyes but
due to lack of knowledge of the process involved in
harvesting and processing the plants little use is made of this
natural resource. In some countries such as India, Nigeria and
Liberia, where this research has been carried out, or where
there exist a tradition of natural dyeing natural dyes and
mordants are used widely (SCTD, 2009).
Furthermore, Samanta and Agarwal (2009) reported that in
spite of the better performance of synthetic dyes recently the
use of natural dyes on textile materials has attracted more
scientific research due to the following reasons.
Wide viability of natural dyes and their huge potentials
Availability of experimental evidence for allergic and
toxic effect of some synthetic dyes, and non toxic and
non-allergic effects of natural dyes.
To protect the ancient and traditional dyeing technology
generating livelihood of poor artisan/dyers, with
potential employment generation facility.
Availability of scientific information on chemical
characterization of different natural colourants,
including their purification and extraction
Availability of knowledge base and data base on
application of natural dyes on different textiles.
This present paper reviews the art of natural dyeing of
textile, categories of textile suitable for dyeing with natural
dyes, equipments needed for home natural dyeing and very
small scale commercial natural dyeing of textile, colour
fastness of natural dyed textile, various method of natural
dyeing as well as the dyeing processes involved.
1.1. Categories of Textile Suitable for Dyeing
with Natural Dyes
Natural dyes can be used on most types of materials or
fibres but the level of success in terms of fastness and clarity
of colours varies considerably. Users of natural dyes,
however, tend to also use natural fibres, and so much
emphasis will be given to this group (SCTD, 2009).
Natural fibres come mainly from two distinct origins,
animal origin or vegetable origin. Fibres from an animal
origin include wool, silk, mo hairs and alpaca, as well as
some others which are less well known. All animal fibres are
based on protein. Natural dyes have a strong affinity to fibres
of animal origin especially wool, silk, and mohair and the
result with these fibres are usually good. Fibres of plant
origin include cotton flax or linen, ramie, jute hemp and
many others plant fibres have cellulose as their basic
ingredient. Natural dyeing of certain plant based textile can
be less successful than their animal equivalent. Different
mordanting techniques are called for with each category.
When a blend of fibre of both animal and plant origin is
being dyed, then a recipe should be chosen which will
accentuate the fibre which is required to be dominant (SCTD,
2009).
1.2. Equipment Needed for Home Natural
Dyeing and Very Small Scale
Commercial Natural Dyeing of Textiles
Most equipment needed for dyeing fabrics at home or at
the very small scale commercial level, can be found in almost
any market place throughout the world. The following is a
list of the equipment requirement and a brief explanation of
their use (SCTD, 2009).
Pestle and mortar
Mordanting and Dyeing pans
Stirring roads
Thermometer
Measuring Jugs
Storage containers
Plastic bowl and buckets
Strainer
Weighing scales
Protecting equipment:
1.3. MordantsUsed in Natural Dyeing of
Textile
Few natural dyes are colour fast with fibresmordants are
substances which are used to fix dye to the fibres. They also
improve the take up quality of the fabric and help improve
colour and light fastness. The term is derived from the
latinmordere, to bite. Some natural dyes, indigo for example,
will fix without the aid of a mordant; these dyes are known as
substantive dyes other dyes such as madder and weld, have a
limited fastness and the colour will fade with washing and
exposure to light and thus required the used of mordent in
dyeing with them.
Traditionally, mordants were found in nature wood ash or
stale urine may have been used as an alkali mordant, and
acids, could be found in acidic fruit or rhubarb leaves (which
contain oxalic acid) for example. Nowadays most natural
dyers use chemical mordant such as alum, copper sulphate,
 International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Protection 2014; 1(5): 76-81
iron or chrome (there are concerns, however about the toxic
nature of chrome and some practitioners recommend that it
should not be used).
Mordants are prepared in solution, often with the addition
of an assistant which improves the fixing of the mordant to
the yarn or fibre. The most common used mordant is alum
which is usually used with cream of tartar as dyeing assistant.
Other mordants are.
Iron (ferrous sulphate)
Tin (stannous chloride)
Chrome (bichomate of potash)
Copper sulphate
Tannic acid
Oxalic acid
However, using a different mordant with the same dyestuff
can produce different shades, for examples.
Iron is used as a “saddener” and is used to darkens
colours
Copper sulphate also darkens but can give shades which
are otherwise very difficult to obtain.
Tin brightens colours
Tannic acid, used traditionally with other mordants, will
add brilliancy.
Chrome is good for obtaining yellows
Oxalic acid is good for extracting blues from barriers
Cream of tarter is not really a mordant but is used to
give a luster to wool (Siva, 2007; SCTD, 2009;
Kumerasanet al, 2011)
Mordant are often poisonous, and in the dye- house they
should be kept on a high shelf out of the reach of children.
Protective clothing are always used when working with
mordants with utmost care of inhaling the fumes. The
addition of the mordant can be before, during or after (pre,
simultaneous and post mordanting respectively) the dyeing
stage, although most recipes call for mordanting to take place
prior to dyeing. It is best to follow the instruction given in the
recipe being used or experiment on a sample before carrying
out the final dyeing. These chemical mordant are usually
obtained from specialist suppliers or from chemist. Where
this is prohibitive, due to location or cost, natural mordant
can be used, There are a number of plants and minerals
which will yield a suitable mordant but their availability will
be dependent upon your surrounding (SCTD, 2009) some
common substitutes for a selection of mordant are listed
below.
Some plants such as mosses and tea contain small
amount of aluminium. This can be used as a substitute
to alum. It is difficult to know however, how much
aluminium will be present and experimentation may be
necessary.
Iron water can be used as a substitute to ferrous sulphate.
This can be made simply by adding some rusty nails and
a cupful of vinegar to a bucket full of water and
allowing the mixture to sit for a couple of weeks.
Oak galls or sumach leaves can be used as a substitute
to tannic acid.
78
Dayalet al, (2006). As cited in Samanta and Agarwal (2009)
studied the effect of potassium dichromate on colourfastness
properties of silk, wool and cotton fibres. The wool treated
with metal ions such as Al+3, Cr+6, Cu+2, Fe+2 and Sn+2 and
rare earth such as La+2 and Sn+2 was used to dye with beet
sugar colourant and it was found that this dyeing can with
stand the requirement of BIS fastness standard. Wanyamaet
al (2011) reported the use of potassium aluminiumsulphate in
the mordanting of cotton fabrics dyed with natural dyes
obtained from Albizia, curcumaLangaL, Morinda Lucida,
Rubia Cordifolia Vitellaria Paradoxa, indigoferaarrecta,
Justicia Betonica and Syzygiumcordatum; deep shades were
obtained with extract from Albiziacoriaria,
vitellariaparadoxa, Rubiacordifolia. whereas bright light
shades were obtained with dye extract obtained from
curcuma longa L, morindalucida, and indigoferaarrecta. Jothi,
(2008) reported the mordanting of cotton and silk with
natural dyes derived from marigold flower. Accurately
weighed cotton, silk, and wool samples were treated with
different mordants (Alum, copper sulphate, stannous chloride
and ferrous sulphate). The mordant (2% owf) was dissolved
in water to make a liquor ratio 1:40. The wetted samples
were entered into the mordant solution and then brought to
heating. Temperature of the dye bath was raised to 80oC over
a period of half an hour and left at that temperature for
another 30 minute. The mordanted material was then rinsed
with water thoroughly, squeezed and dried. Mordanted cotton
and wool needed to be used immediately for dyeing because
some mordants are very sensitive to light. Saravanan and
Chandramohan, (2011) reported the use of both natural and
chemical mordant in dyeing silk; the silk sample were treated
with chemical mordants (Alum, ferrous sulphate, potassium
dichromate, nickel sulphate and stannous chloride) and
natural mordants (Myrobolan and cow dung) by following
three method:
Premodanting; samples were pretreated with the
solution of different chemical and natural mordants
Post mordanting: dyed silk fabric were taken out of the
dye bath, squeezed and treated with solution of different
chemical and natural mordants.
Simultaneous mordanting: silk sample were dyed with
dye extract as well as different chemical and natural
mordants simultaneously.
However Kumerasanet al (2011) reported the use of
combination of mordants in dyeing silk with eco-friendly
natural dye obtained from cordiasebestena the mordant
combinations employed are; Myrobolan: Nickel sulphate,
myrobolan: Aluminiumsulphatemyrobolan: potassium
dichromate myrobolan: ferrous sulphate, myrobolan:
stannous chloride. A wide range of soft and light colour was
obtained. With regard to colour fastness test samples
exhibited excellent fastness to washing (except for pre-
mordanting using myrobolan: potassium dichromate
combination; excellent fastness to rubbing (except for
premordanting using myrobolan: potassium dichromate
combination); good to excellent fastness to perspiration in
79 Ado A. et al.: Dyeing of Textiles with Eco-Friendly Natural Dyes: A Review
both acidic and alkaline media and fairly good fastness to
light.
1.4. Method of Dyeing Textile with Natural
Dyes
Dyeing textile with natural dyes can be carried out in an
alkaline acidic or in a neutral bath depending on the chemical
nature of the dyes and the fibre. Mohantyet al (1987)
reported dyeing of cotton and silk with babool, tesu,
Menjinstha, henna, indigo, marigold etc. with different
mordants. Various kinds of shades like black to brown and
green to yellow to orange, can be obtained by the application
of different mordants. However, before dyeing the clothes
need to be scoured, bleached, or treated chemically by
different methods. Thus, source wise and state- wise different
artisan dyers are performing natural dyeing of silk, cotton
and wool from long time and have derived some special
techniques and processes for individual dye-fibres
combination to get a particular shade.
There are a number of methods of applying dye to fabric.
Although the most common method used for applying natural
dyes is the vat method, there are techniques which have been
developed to allow patterns to be incorporated during the
dyeing process. It is worth bearing in mind that using natural
dyes is a complex art and the skill required for using natural
dyes are learned over many years (Foulds, 1989).
1.5. Conventional Method of Natural Dyeing
of Textile
Samanta and Agarwal (2009) reported the general process
followed in preparing a cotton cloth for natural dyeing which
includes dunging, washing bleaching and steaming followed
by steeping in alkaline iye and rinsing. The cloth is usually
soaked in a solution of harda/myrobolan and then dried. The
cloth is then pre-mordanted by dipping it in a solution of
alum and water. In some places, gum or a paste of tamarind
seed (tamarind kernel powder) is added to make it sticky. For
dyeing the cloth is generally boiled with an aqueous
extracted solution of specific natural dye until all the
colouring matter is absorbed by the cloth. The dyed fabric is
then washed and spread out to dry gradually in air under the
sun. Water is sprinkled at certain interval over the cloth so as
to brighten the colour; this process is continued for 2-4 days.
If required, the cloth is finally starched by dipping it in a
paste of rice or wheat flour, or in a solution of babool gum
and then dried.
Wanyamaet al (2011) reported the conventional dyeing of
cotton fabric using natural dyes obtained from indigenous
plants in Uganda. A single bath process where both dyeing
and treatment with mordant was done in the same solution
were employed. The dye solution and mordant were treated in
this mixture for 60 minute at the boil (90oC). The pH of the
dye bath was maintained between 6.5 and 7.5 using acetic acid
(40%). A liquor ratio (LR) of 1:200 was used in all the dyeing.
The dyed fabrics were removed from the exhausted dye
solution and rinsed for ten (10) minutes in worm distilled
water to which a liquid detergent had been added. The cotton
fabric was then rinsed in cold distilled water until there was no
more colour bleeding. The fabric was then dried in an open air.
Jothi, (2008) reported the conventional dyeing of cotton
and silk with dye extract of African morigold flower. The
cotton and silk samples were dyed with dye extract, keeping
material to liquo ratio as 1:40; however for cotton dyeing it
was used directly while in the case of silk dyeing the PH was
maintained at 4 by adding a buffer solution (sodium acetate
and acetic acid). After dyeing, the dyed materials was washed
with cold water and dried at room temperature. It was then
dipped in brine for dye fixing. The colour strength was
determined calorimetrically, using computer colour matching
software at the maximum wavelength of the natural colourant.
1.6. Non Conventional Method of Natural
Dyeing of Textile
The demand for eco-friendly textiles and eco-friendly
natural dyes by customers led to the revival of natural dyes
for textiles, with the newer energy efficient dyeing process
and more reproducible shade development processes.
(Samanta and Agarwal, 2009).
Senthilkumar et al (2002) as cited in Samanta and Agarwal,
(2009) reported that the ultrasonic energized dyeing
condition for need leave give better dye uptake uniform
dyeing, and better light and wash fastness on cotton fabric.
Also cited in Samanta and Agarwal (2009), Ghorpade et al
(2000) and Tiwariet al (2000) reported ultrasound energy
dyeing of cotton with sappan wood. Tiwari et al (2000) also
reported dyeing of cotton fabrics by tulsi leaves extract using
ultrasonic dyeing technique. Dyeing under ultrasonic
condition is advantageous because it consumers less heat
than normal dyeing for the same shade. Lokhande et al (1999)
as cited in Samanta and Agarwal (2009) dyed nylon with
three different natural dyes using various mordants be two
different techniques open bath and high temperature high
pressure dyeing methods, of which high temperature high
pressure dyeing was found to be better as compared to open
bath dyeing method.
Tiwari and vankar (2001) as cited in Samanta and Agarwal
2009 studied unconventional natural dyeing using microwave
and sonicator with alkanet root bark. Vankar et al (2008)
studied and reported eco-friendly sonicator dyeing of cotton
with Rubiacordifolialinn using biomordant. Use of
biomordant replaces metal mordants, thus making natural
dyeing more eco-friendly.
However, these methods are still in research laboratory
stage. Commercialization of these method have not yet being
achieved due to so many factors including non-improved dye
extraction methodologies, necessary technology to apply
natural dyes to textile such as cotton wool and silk and
particularly for value added products, high cost of dyeing
textile with natural dyes, ignorance about the process to the
small scale dyers among others. (Vankar 2002, Samanta and
Argarwal 2009).
 International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Protection 2014; 1(5): 76-81
1.7. Colour Fastness Properties of Natural
Dyed Textiles
Colour fastness is the resistance of a material to change
any of its colour characteristics or extent of transfer of its
colourents to adjacent white materials in touch. The colour
fastness is usually rated using greyscale either by loss of
depth of colour in original sample or by staining adjacent
white material. However, among all types of colour fastness,
light fastness, wash fastness and rub fastness are considered
most important for any textiles; perspiration fastness is more
useful for apparels only (Samanta and Agarwal, 2009).
1.8. Light Fastness
Light fastness of many natural dyes, particularly those
extracted from flower petals are found to vary from poor to
average. So an extensive work has been carried out to
improve the light fastness properties of different natural dyed
textile(Samanta and Agarwal, 2009).
Jothi (2008), reported an improved light fastness properties
of cotton and silk fabrics dyed will dye extract obtained from
African marigold, flower; samples dyed with marigold
extract using iron and copper as mordants showed good light
fastness due to the formation of a complex with transition
metals which protects the chromophore from photolytic
degradation, and the photons sorbed by the chromophoric
group dissipate their energy by resonating within the six
member ring thus formed, and hence protecting the dye.
Kumaresan et al (2011) determined the colour fastness of silk
dyed with natural dye extract from cordial sebestena using
combination of mordants; the sample was exposed to UV
light in a Shirley MBTFmicrosal fade –o-meter. The fading
of each sample was observed against the fading of blue wool
standard (1-8), a fairly good fastness to light was observed
saravanan and chandramohan (2011), also reported a very
good light fastness properties on natural dyed silk fabric.
However, Vankar (2002) investigated the colour fastness to
light of henna, harda, catechu and Babool on dyed textile a
fairly good fastness was observed with henna, very good
light fastness was found with catechu. Samanta et al (2009)
have recently reported the improvement in light fastness of
one to half unit for natural dyed jute textiles by application of
1% benztriazole in specific conditions. The corresponding
mechanism of action of benztriazole on jute has also been
reported by them.
2. Wash Fastness
Wash fastness of dye is influenced by the rate of diffusion
of dye and the state of dye inside the fibre. Jothi (2008)
reported that the dye extracted from marigold exhibits good
to excellent wash fastness; this is attributed to the tendency
of the dye to aggregates inside the fibres. He, however,
noticed that there were change of some colour in the dyed
samples after soap wash and thus attributed it to;
decomposition of the dye into colourless or a differently
coloured compound, the dye detaches from the substrates due
80
to the weak dye-fibre bond between the natural dye and the
fibres, ionization of the natural dye during alkaline washing.
He therefore recommended the use of mild non ironic soap
for use with these dyes.
However, Kumaresan et al (2011) evaluated the colour
fastness to washing of natural dyed silk fabric using sasmira
launder-o-meter following 1S-3 wash fastness method. The
wash fastness rating was assessed using grey scale as per
1S0-05-A02 (loss of shade depth) and 180-105-A03 (extent
of staining) and the same was cross checked by measuring
the lost of depth of colour and staining using Macbeth 2020
plus computer aided colour measurement system attached
with relevant software. Test samples exhibited excellent
fastness to washing (except for pre-modanting using
myrobolon: potassium dichromate combination). Samantaet
al (2009) as cited in Samanta and Agarwal (2009) recently
reported that the treatment with 2% CTAB or SandofixHCF
Improve the wash fastness by nearly I unit.
3. Rub Fastness
In general, rub fastness of most of the natural dyes are
found to be moderate to good and does not require any after
treatment (Samanta and Agarwal, 2009). Samantaet al (2008)
reported that the jack fruit wood manjistha, red sandal wood,
babool and marigold have good rub fastness on jute and
cotton fabrics. Kumaresanet al (2011) evaluated the colour
fastness to rubbing (dry and wet) of silk dyed with an extract
of cordiasubestena using a manually operated crock meter
and grey scale as per 1S0-105 A03 (extent of staining). An
excellent fastness to rubbing was observed.
However, it must be remembered that the colour fastness
of natural dyes do not only depend on chemical nature and
type of colourant, but also on chemical nature and types of
mordant being used. So a dyer must be well acquainted with
the use of proper combination of fibre-mordant to achieve
best colour fastness. More research efforts is therefore
needed to explore the use of natural after treatment agents to
improves both wash and light fastness of natural dyes.
4. Conclusion
It has been found that the required scientific studies and
systematic reports on dyeing of textile with eco-friendly
natural dyes are still insufficient. There are lots of
unharnessed natural products. The present excessive use of
synthetic dyes, estimated at around 10,000,000 tons per
annum, the production and application of which release vast
amount of waste and unfixed colourant causing serious health
hazard and disturbing the eco-balance of nature is of great
concern. Nowadays, fortunately, there is increasing
awareness among people towards the use of eco-friendly
natural dyes owing to their better biodegradability and higher
compatibility with the environment. They are non-toxic, non
allergic to skin, non carcinogenic, abundant and renewable.
However detailed scientific studies with natural dyes have
established that in most cases their properties are comparable
81 Ado A. et al.: Dyeing of Textiles with Eco-Friendly Natural Dyes: A Review
to those of synthetic dyes. The traditional textile dyeing
practice should be substituted by modern, more scientific
practice. In countries like India, Nigeria, Liberia, and Uganda
among others, there is a wealth of plants available for
producing natural dyes that could be utilized for commercial
dyeing of textiles. Therefore much more research and
developmental efforts should be geared toward producing
high quality natural dyes with shades comparable to some of
the highly rated synthetic dyes.
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