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Hydrodynamic model of hydrogeologic fracture system in Gruda ultramafic

rocks, western Serbia

Zoran Nikić, Milenko Pušić, Petar Papić, Nenad Marić

PII: S0022-1694(19)31003-0
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.124268
Reference: HYDROL 124268

To appear in: Journal of Hydrology

Received Date: 10 April 2019

Revised Date: 20 October 2019
Accepted Date: 21 October 2019

Please cite this article as: Nikić, Z., Pušić, M., Papić, P., Marić, N., Hydrodynamic model of hydrogeologic fracture
system in Gruda ultramafic rocks, western Serbia, Journal of Hydrology (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jhydrol.2019.124268

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Journal of Hydrology

Hydrodynamic model of hydrogeologic fracture system in Gruda ultramafic rocks,

western Serbia

Zoran Nikić a*, Milenko Pušić b, Petar Papić b, Nenad Marić a

a University of Belgrade, Faculty of Forestry, Kneza Višeslava 1, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia

b University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mining and Geology, Đušina 7, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia

Phone: +381 (11) 3053 - 903

email address: zoran.nikic@sfb.bg.ac.rs

ORCID: 0000-0002-4237-7186

* corresponding author

Abstract:

A part of the Balkan ultramafic massif is situated in western Serbia and belongs to a

mountain range with several prominent peaks, including Mt. Tara, Mt. Zlatibor, and Mt.

Zlatar. The porosity of ultramafic rocks is generally very low, such that they are classified as

nearly or completely waterless rocks. However, due to tectonic activity and exogenic

processes over geologic time, some ultramafic rocks exhibit a certain level of secondary

fracture porosity. Hydraulically interconnected fractures can form aquifers of the fractured

1
type, such as the one found in Gruda on Mt. Zlatibor. On this location, the quality parameters

of the groundwater in the fractured aquifer, drained via a spring called Bijela Česma,

prompted detailed multidisciplinary investigations aimed at defining the elements of the

aquifer for commercial water bottling purposes. Given that the investigations were

comprehensive, the results allowed high-quality interpretation of the hydrogeologic

conditions and provided the background for developing a hydrodynamic model of the

fractured hydrogeologic system in the ultramafic rocks at Gruda. Modflow software was used

for modeling. This software is primarily intended for intergranular aquifers, but no programs

are available for fractured aquifers in hard rocks with pronounced discontinuities. Modeling

of the fractured aquifer in the ultramafic rocks at Gruda provided the following information:

size of active infiltration surface, hydraulic conductivity of the porous medium, rate of

recharge, residence time of a drop of groundwater from entry to exit, graphical representation

of streamlines, and the like. Despite these difficulties, the results are satisfactory. The values

of the analyzed parameters are believed to be objective and indicate a certain possibility of

using Modflow in hydrodynamic modeling and solving hydrogeologic problems that involve

hard rocks and fractured porosity. In practice, this is especially important for sanitary

protection zoning of groundwater sources that rely on fractured aquifers.

Keywords: ultramafic rocks; fractured aquifer; hydrogeologic fracture system; hydrodynamic

model; Serbia.

1. Introduction

A fractured aquifer is a highly complex hydrogeological system in most cases. It is typically

found in hard rocks (igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic) of secondary porosity, where

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primary porosity is either subordinate or non-existent. Hydrogeological exploration of

fractured aquifers often requires extensive multidisciplinary investigations and, consequently,

substantial funding. Moreover, each of the various exploration methods often contributes to a

better understanding of only a segment of the puzzle that is a fractured aquifer, rarely

shedding light on the entire picture. However, the pieces of the puzzle, put together in a

hydrodynamic model, offer a range of possibilities and solutions that provide a clearer and

more accurate representation of the studied fractured aquifer. This would be difficult to

accomplish with conventional exploration approaches.

One hydrogeologically complex and very interesting aquifer of the fractured type is found in

ultramafic rocks in an area called Gruda on Mt. Zlatibor in western Serbia. This particular

aquifer is especially remarkable because of its recharge and drainage mechanisms and water

quality. Adding to the attraction is the fact that over an area of about 25 km2 built up of

Jurassic ultramafic rocks, there are permanent springs of the ascending type in relative

proximity to each other. Two of them expel a water jet and the discharge of four is diffuse.

The water quality of the two gushing springs is extremely favorable from a nutritional

perspective, such that one has been captured for commercial water bottling. For that purpose,

numerous complex and extensive investigations have been conducted.

A hydrodynamic model was constructed based on the results of investigations of the fractured

aquifer in ultramafic rocks at Gruda on Mt. Zlatibor. The input parameters for the model were

the results of geological and hydrogeological investigations undertaken in two campaigns at

different times: the first in 2004-2006 and the second in 2012-2014.

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However, during the course of analysis and synthesis of the results of the second

multidisciplinary exploration campaign (2012-2014), and subsequent integrated assessment

of both campaigns, certain elements were noted that facilitated geological and

hydrogeological interpretation and the development of a hydrodynamic model of the low-

alkaline fractured aquifer in the ultramafic rocks in Gruda. This favorable circumstance

served as a basis for the present paper, one of whose main contributions is showing how to

model the hydrodynamics of a complex fractured aquifer in hard rocks, specifically

ultramafic rocks. Licensed commercial software GW Vistas, Ver. 6, “Modflow” (USGS

edition, available with several commercial interfaces) was applied to a fractured aquifer. The

results of hydrodynamic modeling are indicative of the potential of this program in

hydrogeological exploration of fractured porosity rocks. This feature is especially valuable

given that there are currently no commercial programs for fractured aquifers. The results

presented in the paper, specifically for ultramafic rocks, allow for comparison with other

examples (attempts) of hydrodynamic modeling of other types of hard fractured-porosity

rocks.

Also noteworthy is the fact that the paper revises certain conclusions (Nikić et al. 2013) about

the geologic framework of the study area (geological age of the sediments in the Kraljeva

Voda depression, thickness of the ultramafics above the diabase-chert formation, and block-

like build-up of the terrain).

2. Study area

The study area is in a spacious ultramafic massif in western Serbia (West Balkans, South East

Europe) (Fig. 1). From a geological perspective, the territory falls within the Alps, more

4
specifically within the ophiolitic belt of the Dinaric Alps (tectonic unit of the first order)

(Dimitrijević, 2002). It is part of the ultramafic massif of the Balkan Peninsula, one of the

largest continuous ultramafic formations in Europe (Brooks, 1987).

The study area is on Mt. Zlatibor, which is situated between Mt. Tara in the northwest and

Mt. Zlatar in the southeast. The surface area of Mt. Zlatibor is about 1,100 km2 and its

ultramafic massif occupies roughly 1,050 km2. Hydrographically, it belongs to the Black Sea

Basin. The topographic water divided crosses Mt. Zlatibor and divides the mountain into

parts that fall within the catchments of the Zapadna Morava River (to the north) and the Drina

(to the west). Geotectonically, the ultramafic massif of Mt. Zlatibor belongs to the central

part of the Dinaric Ophiolitic Belt, which existed as an oceanic section from the Middle

Triassic to the Upper Jurassic (Dimitrijević M.D. and Dimitrijević M.N., 1973; Karamata,

2006; Schmid et al., 2008).

Many researchers have studied the Dinaric Ophiolitic Belt and within it the Zlatibor

ultramafic massif. Based on geophysical investigations, Milovanović and Mladenović

(1966/67) report that the Zlatibor massif originated from magma intrusions along a large fault

of Dinaric trending. Ćirić (1966/67) believes that it evolved from submarine extrusions and

emplacement of peridotites over a diabase-chert formation. Mojsilović at al. (1978) claim that

the massif is a plate-like body, 1000 to 1200 thick, which overlies the diabase-chert

formation, and that along the fringes the thickness decreases to only several tens of meters.

Vukašinović (1996) reports that tectonic and magmatic activity resulted in a mélange-type

nature of the diabase-chert formation, that magma intrusions occurred along deep

dislocations, and that movement of the sediment and magmatite blocks further complicated

the build-up of the ophiolites, diabase-chert formation and ultramafics, additionally resulting

5
in cold contacts between the sediments and magmatites. According to Mojsilović et al. (1978)

and Dimitrijević (1996), Mt. Zlatibor is mostly built up of Upper Jurassic ultramafics, with

some Middle Jurassic diabase-cherts and Triassic limestones.

In the northern part of Mt. Zlatibor there is a spacious rolling plateau at elevations ranging

from 850 to 1200 m (Fig. 1). In the northeastern part of the plateau, in an area called Gruda,

there is a shallow depression named Kraljeva Voda. There are two permanent springs of the

ascending type in this depression, from which water spurts, and four permanent ascending

springs of the diffuse type, where water emerges over on area of 5 to 10 m2. A land area of

some 25 km2 was selected, which is bounded to the south by the peaks of Lečića Vrh (1091

m) and Tusto Brdo (995 m), to the north and northeast by peaks that arch from the northwest

to the southeast: Velika Gruda (1140 m), Škodrića Priboj (1002 m), Čavik (1015 m) and

Lađevac (940 m), to the west by the Kani Potok, and to the east by peaks from Obadovica

(981 m) in the south to Lađevac (940 m) in the north (Figs. 1 and 3). The captured spring

with the largest discharge is called Bijela Česma (BČ), the lower-discharge spring (not

captured) is Hajdučko Vrelo (HV), and the four diffuse ascending springs (DA) are unnamed

(Figs. 3, 5 and 9).

Fig. 1. Geographic location of Mt. Zlatibor and the study area Gruda

The drainage network in the study area comprises four permanent streams: Kani Potok, Bijele

Vode, Prdavac and Bezimeni Potok (Figs. 1 and 3), as well as several ephemerals. The

streams are all ungauged, and their general flow regime is pluvial-nival. After heavy rainfall

or sudden snow melt, the streams become torrents. In the recession period, their flow rate is

from 0.5 L/s to 1.5 L/s. No sinking of the streams was detected. The source of the Bijele

6
Vode is a karst spring, Oko (OS), situated at a point of contact between Triassic limestones

and Jurassic ultramafic rocks, on the northern fringes of Očka Gora (Figs. 1 and 3). The

Bezimeni Potok is permanent from the ascending springs in the Kraljeva Voda depression.

The Prdavac creek originates from a couple of springs whose capacity is less than 0.1 L/s and

which emerge from the diabase-chert formation. The catchment of the Kani Potok is largely

beyond the study area. Its hardly visible permanent flow is formed by leaching waters

immediately upstream from its junction with the Bijele Vode creek. The major channels of all

the streams are in the parent rocks. They are 0.5 m to 1.4 m wide and 0.2 m to 0.5 m deep.

The study area belongs to the Drina River catchment and thus to the Danube River Basin.

The study area is sparsely populated and the landscape features spacious mountain pastures

and meadows, and rare, small, and isolated white pine groves.

3. Material and methods

The algorithm in Fig. 2 shows groups of activities undertaken during the two campaigns,

aimed at defining the elements of the fractured aquifer in ultramafic rocks.

Fig. 2. Algorithm of the types of investigations of ultramafic rocks at Gruda during the 2004-

2006 (I) and 2012-2014 (II) campaigns

Geological and hydrogeological prospecting carried out in Gruda encompassed a land area of

around 30 km2, whose central part hosts the above-mentioned ascending springs. This activity

provided basic information on the study area.

7
Remote detection and photogeological assessment. The objective of remote detection was to

supplement existing data on the rupture pattern and assess the characteristics of the tectonic

structures in the study area. Satellite imagery was assessed by monocular means and

subsequent data interpretation referred to the regional geological framework described in

available geological documentation. Photogeological assessment of the ruptures was

undertaken to study the geological framework in more detail and identify tectonic structures.

Geological and hydrogeological mapping on a scale of 1:25,000 covered an area of

approximately 25 km2 in both campaigns. The most important regional geological

information was taken from Yugoslav Archives, state geological map of the former

Yugoslavia, scale 1:100,000, sheet K34-4 – Titovo Užice, and accompanying authentic

(handwritten) material, on a scale of 1:25,000.

Geophysical investigations were undertaken in the extended area of springs BČ, HV and DA,

in the Kraljeva Voda depression, roughly in the middle of the study area. The resistivity

method was applied for vertical and lateral identification of the lithologic units and to get an

indication of the spatial positions of the fractures and aquifers. The maximum half-distance

between the current electrodes (C1C2/2max) was 600 m, which ensured that the investigated

depth was approximately 350 m. The self-potential method was used to detect subsurface

flow or, in other words, to determine if there were any springs “masked” by proluvial or

alluvial sediments. The objective of the “mise a la masse” method was to detect the positions

and directions of fractures along which groundwater flows to the ascending springs.

Neotectonic analysis. The neotectonic activity in the Gruda ultramafic rocks was

reconstructed by quantitative geomorphological analysis. Relief energy was selected as a

8
parameter relevant to the most recent movements of the Earth’s crust. This parameter was

processed by morphometric and statistical methods and the results were presented by means

of isolines. The relief energy was determined by the difference in height within a ground

surface unit of 1 km2. Statistical processing and reduction to the reference (zero) level yielded

positive and negative relief energy values. The first energy relief trend was calculated to

eliminate the effect of exogenic processes and emphasize the effect of endogenous processes

that lead to neotectonic activity (Marković, 1983).

Soil testing. The focus was on the thickness, porosity and permeability of the soil overlying

the ultramafic rocks.

Exploratory drilling was undertaken to verify the results of mapping and geophysical and

photogeological investigations, as well as to gain insight into the nature of the fractures in the

study area. Six boreholes were drilled during the first campaign and one (IB-10) in the

second, up to a depth of 30 m. A 3” piezometer casing was installed in the borehole to a

depth of 29.90 m.

Climate parameters. Annual precipitation is a significant meteorological parameter from the

viewpoint of the amount of meteoric water that recharges the fractured aquifer in Gruda. It

was also important for determining if there is a correlation between the amount of

precipitation and the discharges of springs BČ and HV. The data were obtained from the

synoptic station on Mt. Zlatibor, which is closest to the study area (3.8 km northeast).

Observations of discharge rates, temperatures and pH of spring water BČ and HV were made

in both campaigns. Both springs were observed at the same time, at five-day intervals. The

9
discharge rate of spring BČ was monitored by the volumetric method and that of spring HV

by a Thomson weir.

Hydrological monitoring of the Bezimeni Potok was conducted in the second campaign. A

small rectangular concrete dam was installed in the channel, at approximately 150 m

downstream from spring BČ. There are no permanent tributaries upstream. The topographic

catchment area is 0.3 km2. The objective was to determine the discharge of the Bezimeni

Potok (creek) in the dry period, when only groundwater from the ascending springs

contributes to the flow.

Geodetic surveys and determination of piezometric head at springs BČ and HV were

undertaken instrumentally. During the second campaign, the piezometric head of both springs

was determined by installing an “inverted” funnel on each of the springs. The top of the

funnel was connected by a plastic tube, diameter 2”, whose opening was 1.8 m above the

ground surface. Both springs were observed on the same day.

Testing of physical properties and chemical compositions of spring water BČ and HV was

performed in both campaigns and included: physical properties; chemical, gas, microbial and

biological compositions; chrysotile asbestos concentrations; and radioactivity (total α, β and

γ).

Isotope 3H and 14C analyses of spring water BČ and HV. Tritium (3H) isotope analyses were

performed to check for a connection between groundwater and meteoric water, and those of

carbon (14C) isotopes to determine the age of the groundwater. In the second campaign one

set of samples were tested in a single series in 2013. The activity of 14C was measured by

10
accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS), and of 3H by a liquid scintillation counter (LSC),

whose lower limit of detection (by electrolytic enrichment) was 0.06 Bq/L and 0.5 T.U.

4. Results

4.1. Geologic framework of the study area

The study area features Mesozoic, Neogene and Quaternary rocks. The spatial position of the

geologic formations is shown in Fig. 3 and the respective lithologic column in Fig. 4.

Fig. 3. Geological map of the study area (Mojsilović et al. 1978, supplemented)

Mesozoic: Mesozoic rocks include: limestones (T3), a diabase-chert formation (J2,3),

harzburgites (eJ33), lherzolites (dlJ33), serpentinites (SeJ33), and serpentinized and opalized

harzburgites (Seop).

Upper Triassic limestones are found in the easternmost part of the study area, called Očka

Gora, in a small, tectonically bounded block whose surface area is about 0.9 km2 (Fig. 3). In

lithological terms, the strata comprise thick, stratified-to-banked limestones, limestone

dolomites, and dolomites (Mojsilović et al. 1978). Dimitrijević M.N. and Dimitrijević M.D.

(1996) believe that the Upper Triassic limestones in Mt. Zlatibor were first deposited over the

Drina-Ivanjica element in the Paleozoic, and that they later slid into an ophiolite mélange in

the form of olistoplaques. This is how a block of Upper Triassic limestones reached Gruda in

the study area (Fig. 3).

11
In the Middle/Upper Jurassic, a diabase-chert formation was created in the labile parts of the

Dinaric geosyncline. A thick ultramafic body was formed in the basin, over the diabase-chert

formation, in the Upper Jurassic period, along deep dislocations (Milovanović and

Mladenović, 1966/67; Ćirić, 1966/67; Mojsilović et al. 1978). This resulted in the creation of

a contact metamorphic belt, represented by amphiboles, honeycombed-striped sillimanite-

gneisses, gneiss-micaschists, phyllites, and green schists.

However, the lithology of most of the study area in Gruda is rather uniform, represented by

Upper Jurassic ultramafic rocks. The primary rocks are differentiates of harzburgite magma

and the intensity of serpentinization varies. Full serpentinization is noted only along the

fringes of the massif and in tectonized zones (Mojsilović et al. 1978). The harzburgites are

fractured on the ground surface but deeper down there is a fresh-looking lithological unit of a

massive texture and porphyroclastic structure, which is very hard and light-to-dark green in

color. Lherzolite is found in the northwestern part of the study area. It is hard and compact on

the ground surface, with up to 1 cm wide fractures. There are serpentinites in the northeastern

and eastern parts of the study area. On the ground surface and at small depths there are

numerous 1-2 cm wide fractures, which are unfilled or semi-filled with earth or small

fragments of hard-rock weathering products. In deeper parts, the serpentinites are hard and

light-to-dark green. Serpentinized and opalized harzburgite is found on a very small location

between springs BČ and HV. There area numerous fissures, up to 5 mm wide, semi-filled to

unfilled. These formations overlie semi-serpentinized harzburgites.

Given the uniform lithology of the harzburgites, lherzolites and serpentinites in the study

area, as described above, and in view of the topic of this paper, the term ultramafics and the

adjective ultramafic will be used hereafter.

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Neogene: The paper by Nikić et al. from 2013 reported that the sediments in the central part

of the study area, within the shallow depression called Kraljeva Voda, belong to the

Quaternary period. However, the research campaign undertaken in 2014 established that they

are in fact Miocene (Figs. 3 and 4). The drilled sediments are lithologically represented by

alternating layers of clay and angular ultramafic fragments, whose size is 1-2 cm. The

thicknesses of these layers vary, up to 0.6 m. According to Mojsilović et al. (1978), these

sediments originate from lacustrine and later marsh conditions in tectonic depressions, at

which time their floor probably sank slowly. This mechanism facilitated profundal

sedimentation, with largely clay sediments alternating with interbeds of harzburgite

fragments carried by erosion to the very edge of the depression.

Quaternary: The Quaternary formations (Q2) are represented by fluvial and slopewash cycles.

Their spread is not large and their thickness is up to 1 m (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Stratigraphy of lithologic units in Gruda and their hydrogeological functions

4.2. Remote detection and photogeological assessment of the rupture pattern

Remote detection was primarily used to determine large regional discontinuities. Certain and

inferred ruptures were identified from the photogeological assessment, which indicated a

relatively extensive rupture pattern in the entire study area.

4.3. Results of geophysical investigations

13
1) Six geoelectric units were identified by the resistivity method, modified for geoelectric

sounding (Fig. 4):

- Unit I, very low resistivity, up to 17 Ωm, which comprises the lowest parts of the terrain in

the Kraljeva Voda depression. The thickness of this unit is approximately 25 m and in

lithological terms, there are alternating strata of clay and ultramafic fragments.

- Unit II, low resistivity, from 6 Ωm to 45 Ωm, forming the ground surface in the vicinity of

all the probes. The thickness is about 5 m and the lithology is represented by extensively

fractured ultramafics in the weathering crust.

- Unit III, slightly elevated resistivity, approximately 90 Ωm to 260 Ωm, in the shallow parts

of the terrain between springs BČ and HV. Its thickness is 15–20 m and the lithology is

represented by serpentinized and opalized harzburgite with honeycombed opal and a clay

component.

- Unit IV, elevated resistivity, approximately 180 Ωm to 310 Ωm, below Unit II. The

thickness is from 7 m to 13 m and the lithology comprises slightly cracked ultramafics in the

weathering core.

- Unit V, very high resistivity, from 3500 Ωm to 6200 Ωm, situated in deep parts of the

terrain, below Unit IV. The thickness of this unit is considerable, ranging from about 115 m

to 210 m, and the lithology corresponds to compact ultramafics.

- Unit VI, high resistivity, 240 Ωm to 1200 Ωm, representing the deepest parts of the terrain,

below Unit V. Several sounders reported data indicative of a unit of low sensitivity, which

would mean that there are other rocks at a depth of 200 to 250 m, which underlie the

ultramafics. The depth to that unit varies, from approximately 140 m to 250 m. In lithological

terms, Unit VI is likely a diabase-chert formation below the ultramafics.

14
2) The self-potential (SP) method was applied to better define the capillary flow of

groundwater within the zone of the ascending springs. The measured SP values ranged from

approximately -4 mV to 30 mV, although the “image” of the capillary groundwater flow was

largely “masked” by the water flow towards the Bezimeni Potok. A special contribution of

the results was the corroboration that the four springs DA near spring BČ are not seeps, but

places of diffuse ascending outflow.

3) The mise-a-la-masse method is founded upon the fact that groundwater flow in the zones

of fractured and tectonized ultramafics is characterized by a lower resistivity than more

compact parts of the same rocks. The distribution of the induced potential fields around

springs BČ and HV suggests that they are connected in the deeper reaches.

4.4. Neotectonic assessment

The neotectonic analysis of a zone somewhat larger than the study area provided elements

that were used to first produce a map of the rupture pattern and relief energy on a scale of

1:25,000 and then a map of the first trend of the relief energy.

For the contemporary tectonic setting in Gruda, the active neotectonic structures were

grouped into two categories based on size and importance (Fig. 5). The first group comprises

regional structures of hectokilometer spread, which separate large morphostructural units and

extend beyond the study area. These are complex neotectonic structures, close to faults or

fault zones. The second category is comprised of small, local faults, reconstructed within the

study area, which separate larger units into smaller blocks.

15
Fig. 5. Map of first relief energy trend and schematic of tectonic block movement in Gruda

The neotectonic structures extend to different depths within the rock masses. The category I

structures are assumed to reach under the ultramafics (diabase-chert formation), perhaps go

even deeper, and the category II structures do not necessarily reach the ultramafic floor (Fig.

7).

4.5. Soil investigations

The top soil in Gruda is largely 10-20 cm thick, exceptionally as much as 40 cm (Fig. 4). Soil

over ultramafics typically contains less clay than other types of soils, and features high

concentrations of iron, chromium, nickel and cobalt, and low concentrations of nutrients such

as nitrogen, phosphorus and sodium (Brooks, 1983). In the study area, where developed, the

soil is of the black soil type, over serpentinite (Tanasijević et al. 1963). The soil crushes

easily and drains well, due to a polyhedral structure, such that its water retention capacity is

low. However, there are numerous places that are bare, with solid rock masses (parent rock)

exposed on the ground surface.

4.6. Exploratory drilling

Exploratory borehole IB-10 was drilled to a depth of 30 m, some 600 m southeast of spring

BČ (Fig. 3). It is situated in the tectonic block of Kraljeva Voda, where the ascending springs

are located. Four distinct zones were identified in the borehole core:

- Zone I, from the ground surface to 0.15 m: soil of brown color, with numerous pieces of

weathered harzburgite in the form of sharp fragments (up to 10 cm in size) and grass roots.

16
- Zone II, from 0.15 m to 8.40 m: heavily cracked harzburgite, core in the form of kernels up

to 10 cm in size; down to 4.60 m harzburgite with numerous fissures 5-8 mm wide, unfilled

or semi-filled with silty material and/or 3-5 mm harzburgite fractions; and from 4.60 m to

8.40 m unfilled or semi-filled fractures.

- Zone III, from 8.40 m to 26.45 m – harzburgite, 23-30 cm long kernels, many fissures up to

8 mm wide, unfilled, rarely semi-filled.

- Zone IV, 26.45 m to 30 m – harzburgite, kernels up to 58 cm long, rare pinched or unfilled

fissures 0.1 mm wide.

Monitoring of groundwater levels at observation well IB-10 in 2013-2014 revealed that

maximum levels were recorded in March and that the levels dropped gradually. From the

beginning of June to the beginning of October the observation well was dry, and then

groundwater levels began to rise again. The minimum depth-to-groundwater on record is 0.64

m.

4.7. Comparative analysis of precipitation and spring discharge

Table 1 shows the following parameters determined in the January 2006–March 2007 and

January 2013–March 2014 campaigns: total precipitation (P), calculated mean daily air

temperature at Zlatibor synoptic station, calculated average discharges of springs BČ and HV

(Qav), average water temperature (tav), and average water alkalinity (pHav).

Table 1. Comparison of parameters derived from two campaigns (January 2006–March 2007

and January 2013–March 2014)

17
The comparative analysis revealed no effect of precipitation or air temperature on the

discharge regimes of springs BČ and HV or water temperature.

4.8. Hydrological observations of the Bezimeni Potok

In the recession period, the flow of the Bezimeni Potok was found to originate solely from

spring BČ and four springs DA that constitute the Livada groundwater emergence zone (Fig.

3). Spring BČ is on the right bank of the Bezimeni Potok, at a distance of about 5 m from the

channel of the creek, situated 2.1 m above the channel. The four springs DA are at roughly

the same elevation as spring BČ but at a distance of 5 to 20 m from the Bezimeni Potok.

Groundwater emerges from the diffuse springs over a surface area of approximately 5 to 10

m2. The terrain is always wet and the water collects and forms small and weak spurts from

which water runs to the Bezimeni Potok.

During the course of monitoring, the discharge of the Bezimeni Potok in the recession period,

from 1 June to 31 October 2013, was recorded at Q=2.08 L/s. If the permanent discharge of

spring BČ, which is constant and amounts to 0.85 L/s, is deducted from the creek’s discharge,

the amount of 1.23 L/s clearly derives from the four springs DA in the Bezimeni Potok

valley.

4.9. Geodetic surveys and piezometric head of ascending springs BČ and HV

Geodetic surveys revealed that the elevation of spring BČ is 920.05 m and that of spring HV

918.47 m. The piezometric head at spring BČ measured +0.49 m above the ground surface

and at spring HV +0.58 m. The surveys showed that water emerged from spring BČ at an

18
elevation 1.58 m higher than at spring HV, and that the piezometric head at spring BČ was

1.49 m higher than that of spring HV.

4.10. Water quality of springs BČ and HV

During both campaigns, the water quality of the two springs was found to be stable across all

parameters. Hydrochemical analyses showed that the waters are cold (around 11OC) and

mildly alkaline (pH 8.2-8.5). The macrocomponent composition is characterized by

hydrocarbonates (BČ=275 mg/L; HV=225 mg/L), magnesium ion (BČ=55 mg/L; HV=45

mg/L), and orthosilicic acid (BČ=41 mg/L as H4SiO4; HV=28 mg/L as H4SiO4). The

concentrations of other macrocomponents were much lower, in fact extremely low. The

microelement content of the water from spring BČ is shown in Table 2. Among the trace

elements, chromium was detected in an elevated concentration (12.86 mg/L), while the other

parameters were below recommended permissible levels according to the EU Drinking Water

Directive (2011).

Table 2. Microelement concentrations in water from spring BČ

The radioactivity of the water was determined by gamma-spectrometry and the results

showed extremely low activity of cesium, potassium, radium and uranium isotopes (Table 3).

Table 3. Results of gamma-spectrometry, tritium (3H) and carbon isotope (14C) activity in the

water at BČ and HV

19
The results of hydrochemical tests undeniably indicate that the ultramafics are the setting in

which groundwater occurs in the fractured aquifer at Gruda (Nikić et al. 2013).

4.11. 3H and 14C isotope analyses

Table 3 shows the results of tritium isotope (3H) and Table 3 of carbon isotope (14C) activity

determinations.

The values of 4.5 T.U. at spring BČ and 6.6 T.U. at spring HV indicate that there is a certain

age differential between the two waters. The values might be a result of mixing of

groundwater with meteoric water. According to Motzer (2007) and Tadros et al. (2014), the

concentrations of tritium in the waters of springs BČ and HV classifies them as those

resulting from mixing of groundwater and meteoric water. Slightly more pronounced mixing

of groundwater and contemporary meteoric water was noted in the case of spring HV,

compared to spring BČ. The difference is as expected, given that spring HV is not

developed/captured and a greater effect of contemporary meteoric water is possible near the

ground surface.

The groundwater age expressed as an “apparent” 14C age is from 2590 to 3230 years BP

(before present). However, this result cannot be deemed absolute. Rather, it is indicative of

the “average” residence time in the aquifer. The values also indicate that the water from

spring BČ is somewhat older than that from spring HV. Keeping in mind the results of

monitoring of the water regimes of the two springs, it is reasonable to assume that the waters

are not directly affected by contemporary meteoric water. A schematic of the aquifer’s water

balance is shown in Fig. 6.

20
Fig. 6. Schematic of water balance of ultramafic fractured aquifer at Gruda

Precipitation (P) in Gruda is distributed among aquifer recharge by diffuse infiltration (DI),

surface runoff (QP), evaporation (E), transpiration (TR), and discharge via intermittent

springs (IS) (Fig. 6). The groundwater level is the highest during the wet period (GWLmax),

at which time it is within the epi-fracture zone. At the end of recession period, the

groundwater level is the lowest (GWLmin) and located within the neotectonic structures (R)

(Figs. 6, 7 and 8). Based on the results of research, it was assumed that there is no aquifer

recharge from the disconformity floor (QDIP = 0), no flow to the disconformity floor (QOUR

= 0), no recharge from other aquifers (QDDIZ = 0), and no flow to other aquifers (QOUDI =

0). The fractured aquifer in the Kraljeva Voda tectonic depression is drained via ascending

springs (BČ, HV, and DA), at a total rate of QISTI ≈ 2.5 L/s (Fig. 6).

5. Discussion on the fracture porosity of the ultramafics

5.1. Genesis of fractures

Ultramafics are hard, relatively stiff rocks, with no significant primary porosity (Bucher and

Frey, 2002). However, the ultramafics in the study area have been exposed to endogenous

and various exogenic processes during the Upper Jurassic, especially the Neogene period. As

a result, there is some secondary porosity of the fracture type in the ultramafics at Gruda.

Based on the results of the investigations, the secondary fracture porosity of the ultramafics

was classified into families depending on the dominant process that created them.

21
The following families of fractures in the Gruda ultramafics were identified:

a) Endogenous activity in the Zlatibor ultramafic massif after the Upper Jurassic is reflected

in the formation of several generations of tectonic structures.

In Gruda, they extend up to several kilometers and reach different depths. Neotectonic

structures of the first category (R) were assumed to run downward through the entire

ultramafic mass, to the point of contact with the diabase-chert formation. Those of the second

category need not necessarily extend to the ultramafic floor (Fig. 7). The fractures within the

neotectonic structures and those that accompany them are supercapillary (> 0.25 mm wide)

(au), capillary (0.25-0.0001 mm), or subcapillary (less than 0.0001 mm). Their density along

the fault structure is not uniform and ranges from non-existent to high. They are unfilled

(open), semi-filled or completely filled with silty material and/or fine clastic ultramafic

fragments.

b) Over the geologic time, a “weathering crust” was formed as a result of exogenic processes

in the ultramafics, virtually across the entire terrain. The porosity closely follows the terrain

morphology and the depths are 3-6 m, locally about 10 m. In addition to the exogenic

processes, an endogenous component has also contributed to the formation of the weathering

crust. Its role is reflected in a larger fracture porosity of the ultramafics on the ground surface,

within the zone of neotectonic structures.

The supercapillary fractures are dominant and occur unfilled, semi-filled or completely filled

with silt and/or fine hard clastic material of autochthonous origin. On certain locations in

Gruda, the fractures in the ultramafic weathering crust are so numerous that they can be

22
imagined in “each” point on a decimeter scale. In such places, these fractures can be

classified as penetrative planar fabric (Turner and Weiss, 1963). Compared to the rest of the

ultramafic mass and other genetic types of secondary porosity, the physical and

hydrogeological characteristics of the weathering crust are distinctly different. Consequently,

the ultramafic weathering crust in Gruda is believed to be an isotropic and homogeneous

penetrative fracture system.

Based on detailed examination, the ultramafic weathering crust at Gruda was classified as an

epi-fracture zone, analogous to the epikarst zone described by Mangin (1975) and Perrin et al.

(2003) in the case of karst terrains. It should be noted that epikarst zones in karst and epi-

fracture zones in ultramafics are not equally permeable. The permeability of epikarst zones is

much higher, but in the present case the permeability of the epi-fracture zone in the

ultramafics is not negligible. The effect of scale in the latter case (Charmoille et al. 2009) is

apparent. Given the results of the investigations, and in view of the scale, the epi-fracture

zone at Gruda is vertically divided into two sub-zones: upper and lower (Fig. 7), similar to

the epikarst zones described by Smart and Friedrich 1986 (from Doefliger et al. 1999). The

upper sub-zone has a penetrative planar fabric with numerous fractures in the decimeter range

(identified as a sector of fine fracture porosity). The depth of this sub-zone is generally 2 to 3

m, locally 4 m, and its thickness varies across the study area. In addition to unfilled and semi-

filled fractures, there are those filled with fine clastic or silty material of autochthonous origin

(products of weathering of the ultramafics). Compared to the upper sub-zone, the lower epi-

fracture sub-zone has fewer fractures. The supercapillary and capillary fractures are

penetrative and in the decimeter-meter range. The lower sub-zone is divided by fractures into

blocks of several tens of centimeters, in healthy, compact ultramafics. They intersect, are

hydraulically connected, mostly unfilled and rarely filled with clastic autochthonous material.

23
Vertically, the lower sub-zone usually follows the upper epi-fracture sub-zone and the

morphology of the terrain. The thickness varies from 3 to 5 m, locally more.

The fracture porosity and thickness vary depending on local morphological conditions, the

nature of the ultramafics and the tectonics. However, it should be noted that in the fault zone

the lower epi-fracture sub-zone is somewhat deeper and forms slopes on the left and right

sides of the neotectonic structure centerline. This results in a horizontally wider and vertically

deeper zone of high fracture porosity along the centerline (Fig. 7).

c) In Gruda, there is a special family of fractures within a disconformity between the diabase-

chert formation and the ultramafics. The genesis of these fractures is associated with the

ultramafics overthrusting the diabase-chert formation in the Upper Jurassic. The assumed

thickness of this system of fractures is approximately 40 m (Mojsilović et al., 1978). The

fracture width ranges from supercapillary (ad) to capillary, they are unfilled to pinched, and

inclined to nearly subhorizontal. The tectonic contact between the ultramafics and the

diabase-chert formation is extremely important in geological and hydrogeological terms.

Geologically, there is a disconformity between two different lithostratigraphic units (IUGS,

2006), which is indicative of the thickness of the Gruda ultramafics (250 m as determined by

geophysical surveys). From a hydrogeological perspective, the importance is that there are

supercapillary fractures at this contact, which are hydraulically connected. The diabase-chert

formation is impermeable and thus constitutes the floor of the fractured aquifer in the

ultramafics.

24
d) A special family of fractures is a result of lithostatic pressure, or the weight of the upper

parts of the ultramafics. As such, they are not significant in hydrogeological terms and are

deemed to be devoid of groundwater, or dry (Nikić et al. 2013).

5.2. Hydrogeological characteristics of fractures

On a macro scale, the Gruda ultramafics comprise rocks with hydrogeologically no

significant porosity. On a medium scale (m’), the secondary porosity of the massif gains

some importance. Although not large, the secondary fracture porosity allows some

permeability and the formation of a fractured aquifer (groundwater body). However, on a

micro scale (dm’, cm’), genetically different secondary fractures are significant from a

hydrogeological perspective.

5.2.1. Hydrogeological characteristics of the epi-fracture zone

A hydrogeologically specific feature of the epi-fracture zone, or the ultramafic weathering

crust, is the presence of numerous fractures of different widths and degrees of filling, which

are chaotically distributed and hydraulically well connected. Owing to the extremely well

developed fracture porosity of the ultramafics in the epi-fracture zone, there is diffuse

infiltration (DI) of meteoric water. Water is infiltrated and then flows along supercapillary

fractures gravitationally. The floor of the epi-fracture zone is also ultramafic, therefore

compact and with no hydrogeologically significant porosity. They are thus considered to be

impermeable rocks, except in places of neotectonic structures.

25
During wet periods, infiltrated water is stored locally, for a limited period of time, in a

pseudo-diffuse aquifer above the impermeable ultramafics. The water depth of the locally

stored water is relatively small (3–10 m). These storage units are unconfined. They belong to

an open hydrogeological structure and each has its own (local) continuous water table. The

distance between such units can be small, they may or may not be hydraulically connected or

connected only during certain hydrologic events. Since the units exist only during wet periods

and for a short time thereafter, they are referred to as “seasonal” (or local) reservoirs (Figs. 7

and 8). There are many such reservoirs in Gruda, but their distribution across the epi-fracture

zone is not uniform.

Fig. 7. Simplified model of fractured ultramafic aquifer in Gruda

a) Schematic cross-section of fractured aquifer, showing “seasonal” (local) reservoirs,

neotectonic structures of categories I and II, the disconformity, and drainage via ascending

springs; b) Detail of water flow from epi-fracture zone to neotectonic structure with a narrow

entrance (au); c) Detail of water flow from epi-fracture zone to neotectonic structure with

wider entrance (au).

The water from the seasonal reservoirs in the epi-fracture zone is lost to: evaporation (E),

transpiration (TR), drainage via intermittent springs and seeps (IS), and downward flow along

fractures that follow the neotectonic structures (Fig. 6). The effect of this loss is reflected

over time in declining water tables of all the seasonal reservoirs. The rate of decline varies

among them and depends on weather conditions, landscape features, hydrogeological

conditions, stored water quantity, and the permeability of fractures along the neotectonic

structure. The water tables decline gradually, continuously and at different rates. When the

water table of a seasonal reservoir drops below the drainage line of an intermittent spring or

26
seep, the groundwater ceases to emerge on the land surface. Consequently, the number of

intermittent springs and seeps gradually declines and by the end of spring, they all dry out.

Throughout this time, the groundwater from a seasonal reservoir also flows towards deeper

reaches. Given that the epi-fracture zone can be inclined relative to the neotectonic structure,

it directs the groundwater flow to the structure like a “funnel” (Fig. 7). In functional terms,

this is very important because the neotectonic structure promotes “line drainage” (Fig. 7).

Toward the end of the recession period, the general water table in the epi-fracture zone drops

to within the neotectonic structures (Figs. 7 and 8). Then all the fractures above the

groundwater level are waterless and filled with air (Fig. 8). They thus revert to the aeration

zone and the epi-fracture zone is ready to receive water in the next wet season (Figs. 7 and 8).

This clearly differentiates the zone from the rest of the ultramafics in Gruda, but also from

other genetic types of ultramafic fractures.

5.2.2. Hydrogeological characteristics of fractures in neotectonic structures

In hydrogeological terms, the unfilled and hydraulically connected fractures along the

neotectonic structures of the first category (R) become the main pathways of downward

groundwater flow (Figs. 7 and 8). The flow velocity along these main pathways is relatively

low, given that fracture widths (au) along the neotectonic structures decrease with increasing

depth, as does their permeability. This causes the flow from the seasonal reservoirs to the

neotectonic structures to be gradual and continuous. Owing to that fact, no aeration

(unsaturated) zone is formed in the fractured ultramafic aquifer at Gruda, between the

seasonal reservoirs in the epi-fracture zone and the groundwater in the neotectonic structures.

27
Looking at the hydrogeological section, the part of the neotectonic structure above the current

groundwater level is in the aeration zone and the part below (where all the fractures are filled

with water) is in the saturated zone – belongs to an open hydrogeological structure via the

epi-fracture zone (Fig. 8).

The neotectonic structures of the second category in Gruda, which do not reach the bottom of

the ultramafics, might be contributing to the hydraulic connection between the neotectonic

structures of the first category (Fig. 5).

Groundwater from the neotectonic structures is lost solely to downward flow (Figs. 6, 7 and

8). This flow is relatively slow and the groundwater level is usually the lowest at the end of

the recession period. However, it still remains relatively high and is able to maintain a

sufficiently high hydrostatic pressure to feed ascending springs BČ, HV and DA in the

Kraljeva Voda depression and support their artesian pressure (Figs. 6, 7 and 8).

5.2.3. Hydrogeological characteristics of disconformity fractures

It is reasonable to assume that apart from nearly vertical fractures in the neotectonic

structures of the first category, the disconformity also features subcapillary subhorizontal

fractures that are a result of the overthrust ultramafics. The hydrogeological significance of

unfilled supercapillary and subhorizontal fractures in the disconformity is that they allow

lateral groundwater flow. Groundwater flow along the contact occurs due to the hydrostatic

pressure in the neotectonic structures of the first category (R). Owing to this hydrostatic

pressure and the hydraulic link between two genetically different families of fractures, the

28
lateral flow is laminar, converges toward the neotectonic structures of the first category, and

drains the aquifer via the ascending springs (Figs. 7 and 8).

However, the piezometric head of the ascending springs in the Kraljeva Voda depression was

determined to be approximately +0.5 m above the ground surface. Owing to the relatively

high ground elevations, a hydrostatic pressure is formed along the edges of the depression,

comprised of tectonic blocks divided by neotectonic structures (Fig. 5). This pressure is

conducive to groundwater flow. The high potential energy in the form of hydrostatic pressure

in the neotectonic structures is spent on countering the resistance in the groundwater flow

process along the disconformity to the point of outflow (Figs. 7 and 8). The part of the

aquifer in the disconformity is a semi-confined hydrogeological feature, with subartesian and

artesian pressures. There are probably not many supercapillary fractures in the disconformity

(ad) and the flow velocity is very low. According to the isotope analyses of the water from

spring BČ, the apparent age of the groundwater is 3230±20 years and from spring HV

2590±20 years. These ages are indicative of slow and deep circulation.

Fig. 8. Schematic model of hydraulically connected but genetically different families of

secondary fractures in the Gruda ultramafics

a) hydraulically connected fractures; and b) maximum and minimum groundwater levels and

stable piezometric head at the point of discharge in the Kraljeva Voda depression.

In the Gruda ultramafic rocks, within the hydraulically interconnected but genetically

different families of fractures, the total cross-sectional area of supercapillary fractures

(excluding the epi-fracture zone) is the largest at the entrance to the neotectonic structures

(Σau = au1 + au2 + … +aum). It is somewhat smaller along the disconformity (Σad = ad1 + ad2 +

29
… +adn) and the smallest at the exit from the neotectonic structures (Σai = ai1 + ai2 + … +aip).

Namely, Σau > Σad > Σai (Figs. 8 and 9). Groundwater level fluctuations during the year, from

maximum to minimum (∆h = hmax – hmin), have no effect on the piezometric head (ho) of the

ascending springs in the Kraljeva Voda tectonic depression, which remains constant (Figs. 7,

8 and 9).

6. Hydrodynamic model of the Gruda ultramafic fracture system

The interconnected families of fractures in the Gruda ultramafics were identified as a single

hydrogeologic fracture system (HgFS) for the following reasons: a) the interconnected

fracture families of different genetic origin constitute a system of fractures and a hydraulic

entity in which the waters within the fractures interact; and b) each fracture connected to at

least one other fracture functions within a single groundwater body, or fractured aquifer

(Figs. 7, 8 and 9).

Fig. 9. Schematic model of the hydrogeologic fracture system (HgFS) in the Gruda

ultramafics

A 3D hydrodynamic model of the hydrogeologic fracture system was developed on the basis

of the previously described geologic and hydrogeologic conditions of the Gruda ultramafics.

Licensed GW Vistas, Ver. 6 (Rumbaugh J. and Rumbaugh D., 1996-2011) “Modflow”

software was used. Its primary application relates to intergranular and highly stratified

aquifers. However, it is often used as a software tool for assessing fractured aquifers, given

that no commercial software is available for that type of aquifer. As such, the approach was

challenging in terms of performance expectations and the validity of results.

30
6.1. Conceptual approach

A large diversity was noted with regard to the spread and hydrogeologic setting of the three

studied zones of the fractured aquifer in the Gruda ultramafics.

The epi-fracture zone was modeled as a continuous porous medium of a large horizontal and

small vertical spread (Figs. 7, 8 and 9). Locally, its upper part exhibits nearly intergranular

porosity characteristics. The horizontal boundary of this zone was modeled as a single

continuous layer and it coincides with the topographic water divide of the catchment of the

ascending springs in the Kraljeva Voda depression (Fig. 10). The upper surface of the epi-

fracture zone is also the ground surface. Its morphology is governed by the relief, which

affects the groundwater flow mechanism. Namely, the investigations revealed that the

Kraljeva Voda depression, in which the springs are situated, is where the fractured aquifer in

the Gruda ultramafics is drained (Fig. 9). Even though there are ground elevations in the

drainage area lower than that of spring HV (918.47 m above sea level), there are no

ascending springs like in the Kraljeva Voda depression. This fact led to the assumption that in

terrains hypsometrically lower than the elevation of spring HV, all the neotectonic structures

in places of contact with the epi-fracture zone are impermeable. It is possible that the

fractures along the neotectonic structures are pinched or filled. Analogously, there is virtually

no aquifer recharge from precipitation in parts of the terrain below the elevation of the

ascending springs. As such, precipitation beyond the topographic water divide does not

belong to the studied hydrogeological system, which is relevant to the understanding of the

groundwater flow mechanism (Fig. 10a). However, it is possible that a part of the aquifer in

the disconformity and the lower parts of some of the neotectonic structures are beyond the

31
orthogonal projections of the topographic water divide of the Kraljeva Voda depression, but

there is certainly no hydraulic contact with neighboring aquifers.

The tectonic blocks were modeled as a single layer, but with a water-bearing medium only

along the subvertical neotectonic structures (R) and only in parts believed to be unfilled

(above an elevation of 920 m). A large part of this zone is occupied by impermeable

ultramafics in the form of massive tectonic blocks, modeled as “no flow” cells. They are

about 230 m thick. Although the horizontal spread of the subvertical neotectonic structures

coincides with the underlying disconformity, the place of the active hydraulic link between

the neotectonic structures and the epi-fracture zone (where the neotectonic structures are at

elevations above 920 m) is highly relevant to the studied aquifer (Fig. 10b). The parts of the

neotectonic structures beyond the topographic water divide were modeled as impermeable,

otherwise there would be a hydraulic link with neighboring aquifers and this would not be

consistent with the results and the adopted hydrogeological concept.

The disconformity was specified in the model as hypsometrically the lowest porous unit, or

the lowest modeled layer, and it represents a continuous permeable unit under the tectonic

blocks (Figs. 7, 8 and 9). Groundwater along it is in hydraulic communication via the

subvertical neotectonic structures of the first category (R), which intersect this zone. It was

assumed that the disconformity is a layer of roughly the same thickness – 40 m (Fig. 4), and

that the hypsometric relationships are such that elevations decrease from the fringes to the

middle of the entire system (the Kraljeva Voda depression) (Fig. 9). The horizontal spread of

this part of the fractured aquifer was defined on the basis of the neotectonic analysis of the

Gruda rupture pattern (Fig. 10c). In the hydrodynamic model, the bottom of the

32
disconformity represented the boundary condition of the impermeable Jurassic diabase-chert

formation (Fig. 4).

6.2. Modeling of the porous medium and groundwater flow mechanism

In hydrogeological terms, three zones were identified in the modeled porous medium along

the vertical, going downward: the epi-fracture zone (20 m), the neotectonic structures (230

m), and the disconformity (40 m) (Figs. 8 and 9). The porosity of all three is of the fracture

type. However, since the supercapillary fractures can be filled with solid ultramafic

fragments, there is fracture porosity in combination with nearly intergranular, whose

characteristics are specific. On a medium or micro scale, the privileged trending of the

fractures could not be diagnosed, so in general terms it was assumed that along the fractures

in the study area the dominant porosity has elements of the pseudogranular type. According

to that assumption, the groundwater flow in its entirety was considered to be laminar, Darcy’s

flow in an intergranular porous medium (Fig. 8). There is a water table within the epi-fracture

zone and certain upper parts of the neotectonic structures, whereas the lower parts of the

aquifer are confined (Figs. 8 and 9).

The infiltrated precipitation that is not drained via intermittent springs or seeps, or lost to

evapotranspiration, enters the porous medium along the subvertical neotectonic structures,

where permeable conditions prevail (Fig. 6). The water moves down to the aquifer through

the fractures of the subvertical neotectonic structures, up to the zone of saturated neotectonic

structures and the disconformity. The water flows subhorizontally and very slowly through

the disconformity, up to the point where it vertically emerges from the porous medium via the

33
ascending springs in the Kraljeva Voda depression (Fig. 9). This fact required setting of two

types of boundary conditions in the hydrodynamic model:

- Infiltration of precipitation, limited to zones along the neotectonic structures and in the

water balance limited to the total outflow of water from the aquifer, at a rate of about 2.5 L/s.

Specified as water column height in a given time interval (with a velocity dimension, m/s);

and

- Aquifer drainage via the ascending springs in the Kraljeva Voda depression. Specified as

piezometric head at the point of discharge (dimension m’).

6.3. Calibration of the model

The model was calibrated on the basis of the investigation results, with certain assumptions

and modeling of natural characteristics and groundwater flow conditions. The investigations

provided reliable information concerning the constant regime of springs BČ and HV

(discharge, temperature and water quality).

Model calibration was founded upon the following principles:

- The model was calibrated through calculations for steady flow, assuming that aquifer

recharge corresponds to drainage over a relatively long period. The piezometric head in this

regime is consistent with the multiyear average.

- Terrain geometry was simulated in accordance with available geohydrogeological

knowledge of the study area.

- The relief was simulated with an equidistance of 10 m, which maximized accuracy given

the discretization of the study area (model cells 12.5 m x 12.5 m). A relatively large jump

between neighboring cells at different elevations should be kept in mind (Fig. 10c). It caused

34
certain difficulties that the software could not resolve in a satisfactory manner. The

rectangular matrix that covered the study area was approximately 15.5 km2.

- Monitoring revealed that the rate of discharge of ascending spring BČ was Q=0.85 L/s, and

of HV Q=0.42 L/s. In addition, the continuous cumulative discharge of the four DA springs

in Livada was assumed to be 1.23 L/s (Fig. 9). Consequently, the model was calibrated for an

overall water balance of 2.5 L/s. The springs were specified using surveyed or estimated

elevations of groundwater emergence.

- The ground surface whose elevation was below that of the ascending springs (920 m) was

not relevant to the aquifer regime (precipitation does not reach the aquifer) and was

hydraulically isolated from precipitation in the model (Fig. 10d).

- The active ground surface where precipitation is infiltrated (epi-fracture zone) was defined

based on the selected approach to model a (quasi)steady aquifer regime. This ground surface

belongs to the unconfined part of the aquifer (Fig. 10d). Its spread is a result of the overall

geometry and flow characteristics of the porous medium, as well as the combination of

aquifer recharge and drainage (Figs. 8 and 9).

- Infiltration is the only renewable factor of the aquifer. It was targeted to correspond to the

given discharge and specified in the model as belonging to the unconfined part of the aquifer

(Fig. 10e).

- Simulation of the geometry of the second and third model layers (subvertical neotectonic

structures and disconformity) was simplified, with a vertical (second layer) and horizontal

(third layer) spread (Figs. 10f and 10g).

- Each tectonic block was defined in plan view by a tectonic discontinuity (Figs. 5, 10c and

10d). Figures 10c and 10d show two numbers in each tectonic block. The first is the elevation

of the bottom of the disconformity and the second of the bottom of the tectonic block. The

sides of the tectonic blocks were assumed to be vertical surfaces, which represent tectonic

35
discontinuities, and the bottom a horizontal plane (Fig. 11). The epi-fracture zone overlies the

tectonic blocks. It was assumed to be ~20 m lower than the real ground relief.

- The model comprises three layers. Looking down from the ground surface, the layers are: 1.

epi-fracture zone, 2. tectonic discontinuities and blocks, and 3. disconformity. A single,

representative hydraulic conductivity was assumed for the active porous medium because a

few aspects of the model (due to lack of relevant data) are like those of a “gray box” model.

- The filtration characteristics of the porous medium were the same across the modeled area.

The reason for this was a lack of measured data. Preliminary estimation indicated a degree of

uncertainty if these characteristics were to be defined for each zone separately, so a general

hydraulic conductivity was targeted, which could meet the previously specified requirements.

During the calibration process, calculations were initially made using assumed input

quantities, with gradual convergence towards the targeted solution.

6.4. Results of calculations

In view of the fact that commercial software for fractured aquifers is not available, Modflow

was used. The calculations were extensive and time consuming. The required accuracy was

also an issue, due to the inability to converge the interim results. Some 3000 to 5000

iterations were needed to reduce the budgeting error to about 1%. Despite these difficulties,

the end result was satisfactory.

Model calibration provided the hydraulic conductivity of the porous medium, the rate of

infiltration, and the size of the ground surface where active infiltration occurs.

36
The representative hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is K=1·10-5 m/s. This value provided

the most realistic picture of groundwater flow.

The land surface where infiltration of precipitation occurs was estimated. Figure 10d shows

this part of the terrain, in white. Pink is dry land, where the piezometric head is below the

floor of the epi-fracture zone. The upper boundary of the wet zone of this part of the aquifer

is generally around an elevation of 950 m, and locally above 960 m, while the minimum

elevation is approximately 940 m. The surface area of the infiltration/aquifer recharge zone

was approximated at 5.3 km2.

The rate of infiltration was estimated at 4.8·10-10 m/s, meaning that 15 mm of water reaches

the aquifer annually from the recharge zone. The multiyear average precipitation in the

extended zone of Mt. Zlatibor is 970 mm, such that the multiyear average proportion of

infiltrated precipitation is 1.7%.

In the lowest zone of the aquifer, at the hydraulic contact of the disconformity and the

neotectonic structure (point Z, Figs. 7, 8 and 9), the direction of groundwater flow is along

the subvertical neotectonic structure toward the ground surface and the ascending springs in

the Kraljeva Voda depression (Figs. 8, 9 and 10f). The piezometric head in point Z (Figs. 7, 8

and 9) is 942.7 m and on the ground surface, at spring BČ, it is 922.05 m. The difference of

20.65 m (or 2.02 bar) is the hydraulic loss along the flow from point Z (Figs. 7, 8 and 9) to

the ascending springs.

The groundwater pathways, from the point of entry into the aquifer to the point of exit, are

diverse. They were simulated in the model by a graphical representation of streamlines

37
(calculations based on the “particle tracking” method). A streamline begins at a given point in

the epi-fracture zone (red), continues through the subvertical neotectonic structure (black)

and the disconformity (green), and leaves the aquifer (vertically upward) at the ascending

spring (Fig. 10g). The particle residence time depends on the initial location and route (Fig.

10h).

Fig. 10. Layers of the hydrodynamic model of the HgFS in the Gruda ultramafics

a) surface of the epi-fracture zone through which meteoric water recharges the aquifer; b)

subvertical neotectonic structures with an active hydraulic link (green); c) elevations of

disconformity roof and floor, for the identified tectonic blocks; d) active ground surface

(white) through which precipitation is infiltrated; e) piezometric head and directions of

groundwater flow in the epi-fracture zone; f) piezometric head and directions of groundwater

flow in the disconformity; g) some of the streamlines of the fractured aquifer (red – flow

through the epi-fracture zone, green – flow through the disconformity); and h) streamlines

and particle residence time in years.

As shown in Fig. 10h, the modeled groundwater residence times range from approximately

1000 to 4000 years within catchment area, depending on the water particle infiltration point,

direction of movement, nature of the fracture system in the epi-fracture zone, tectonic

discontinuities, and the disconformity. Given the real/privileged pathways – three genetically

different families of fractures in the solid ultramafics, the modeled ages are considered

satisfactory when compared to those determined as “apparent” according to 14C.

Fig. 11. Plan view (a) and elevation (b) of the hydrodynamic model of the Gruda ultramafic

HgFS.

38
a) Plan view = active ground surface (white) through which the aquifer is recharged by

precipitation; I-I’— cross-sectional line. b) Section I-I’= red line – flow in the epi-fracture

zone; black line – flow in the neotectonic structures, blocks; blue line – flow at the

disconformity; green line – water-bearing strata (epi-fracture zone, tectonic discontinuities

and disconformity); and dark color – tectonic blocks.

Figure 11a shows a streamline in plan view and Fig. 11b shows section I-I’ of the

hydrodynamic model of the Gruda ultramafic HgFS. The section is N-E and passes through

ascending spring BČ. Two arbitrary input points, northwest and south of spring BČ, were

selected to depict the streamline. The plan view in Fig. 11a shows only horizontal

groundwater flow (red and blue lines). Since the streamline was projected onto section line I-

I’, in a part of the section the groundwater (blue line) passes through impermeable strata, i.e.

the ultramafics (dark color). In section I-I’, the porous/permeable strata (epi-fracture zone,

tectonic discontinuities, disconformity) are marked with the same shade of green, which

reflects the general (single) hydraulic conductivity of the Gruda ultramafic HgFS.

7. Conclusion

In tectonic and lithological terms, two structural megastages were identified in the area called

Gruda (Mt. Zlatibor): the lower comprises a Middle and Upper Jurassic diabase-chert

formation and the upper a tectonically-shaped Upper Jurassic ultramafic massif. As it

overthrust the diabase-chert formation, the ultramafic massif acquired complex

protostructural and then younger tectonic features. Given that the ultramafics have no

significant primary porosity, from a hydrogeological perspective only their secondary

porosity of the fracture type was relevant. With regard to the entire ultramafic mass in Gruda,

39
the secondary fracture porosity is low. Based on their genesis, the fractures were grouped into

three families: those caused by exogenic factors, by tectonic activity, and by the ultramafics

overthrusting the diabase-chert formation. These genetically different families of fractures are

hydraulically interlinked and host an aquifer in the form of a single groundwater body

identified as a hydrogeologic fracture system (HgFS) in the Gruda ultramafics.

The results of these activities indicated a highly complex hydrogeological fracture system –

an unconfined, subartesian and artesian aquifer. The fractured aquifer is recharged solely by

meteoric water. Gravity and hydrostatic pressure govern groundwater flow along the

fractures. The groundwater flows under artesian pressure from the upper, unconfined reaches

of the aquifer to the point of natural drainage in the Kraljeva Voda depression. The fractured

aquifer is drained on the ground surface only in the Kraljeva Voda depression, via two

ascending springs, where the water emerges in the form of a single jet, and four diffuse

springs. The quantitative and qualitative parameters of springs BČ and HV are uniform. No

effect of external climatic, meteorological or hydrological factors on the discharge regime

and water quality of the fractured aquifer in the Gruda ultramafics was noted in real time.

The fractured hydrogeological system in the ultramafic rocks at Gruda is characterized by

output quantities in the form of groundwater discharges via ascending springs, which do not

depend solely on the input quantity of meteoric water. They also depend on the geologic

history of the system and the manner in which it has changed over time. As such, the system

is a hydrogeological hysteresis of sorts.

The hydrodynamic model of the hydrogeological fracture system was developed to define the

geological and hydrogeological conditions of the Gruda ultramafics, using “Modflow”

40
software. Given that there is no commercial software for fractured aquifers, such an approach

was challenging in terms of performance expectations and realistic results.

Despite these difficulties, the resulting hydraulic conductivity of the fractured aquifer

(K=1·10-5 m/s) and the rate of recharge (4.8·10-10 m/s) were satisfactory, as was the size of

the active precipitation infiltration zone (5.3 km2). The results contributed to a more accurate

determination of the recharge zone of the fractured aquifer in Gruda, based on which

groundwater source protection can be zoned. On average, 1.7% of total precipitation was

found to reach the aquifer. What is especially important is that the numerical values of the

fractured aquifer parameters would be very difficult, nearly impossible, to express on the

basis of conventional hydrogeological investigations.

The results of the present hydrodynamic study are certainly open to critique. Still, in general,

the study shed light on and corroborated the assumed hydrogeologic and hydrodynamic

setting of the ultramafic fractured aquifer in Gruda. However, the results deemed objective

are indicative of the possibility of using the above software for hydrodynamic modeling and

tasks that involve hard fracture-porosity rocks, especially with regard to groundwater source

sanitary protection zoning.

Acknowledgements

This work was carried out under the Project No. OI 176018 and No. III 43004, granted and

funded by the Ministry of Science and Technological Development of Serbia.

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45
 Table 1. Comparison of parameters derived from two campaigns (January 2006–March 2007

and January 2013–March 2014)

January 2006 – January 2013 –

Parameter
March 2007 March 2014

P – total precipitation (mm) 971.3 962.5

tav – average air temperature (OC) 7.7 7.8

Qav – Bijela Česma (L/s) 0.85 0.85

tav of water at Bijela Česma (OC) 10.8 10.7

pHav of water at Bijela Česma 8.2 8.4

Qav – Hajdučko Vrelo (L/s) 0.42 0.43

tav of water at Hajdučko Vrelo (OC) 10.6 10.5

pHav of water at Hajdučko Vrelo 8.4 8.5

Table 2. Microelement concentrations in water from spring BČ

Element
As B Ba Bi Cd Cr Cu Ge Li Mo Pb Sb Sn Sr V W Zr
(µg/L)

Bijela
0.29 5.1 1.23 0.014 0.037 12.86 1.3 0.062 0.7 0.17 0.13 1.65 0.38 24.2 2 0.43 0.04
Česma

Table 3. Results of gamma-spectrometry, tritium (3H) and carbon isotope (14C) activity in the

water at BČ and HV

Activity 137Cs 40K 228Ra 226Ra 238U 3H 14C

46
 (Bq/L) (T.U.) (Bq/L) (pMC) age (years BP)
Spring

Bijela
<0.001 <0.02 <0.03 <0.01 <0.1 4.5±0.7 0.5±0.1 66.9±0.2 3230±20
Česma

Hajdučko
<0.004 <0.07 <0.03 <0.01 <0.3 6.6±0.9 0.8±0.1 72.5±0.2 2590±20
Vrelo

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Journal of Hydrology

Hydrodynamic model of hydrogeologic fracture system in Gruda ultramafic rocks,

western Serbia

Zoran Nikić a*, Milenko Pušić b, Petar Papić b, Nenad Marić a

a University of Belgrade, Faculty of Forestry, Kneza Višeslava 1, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia

b University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mining and Geology, Đušina 7, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia

Phone: +381 (11) 3053 - 903

email address: zoran.nikic@sfb.bg.ac.rs

ORCID: 0000-0002-4237-7186

* corresponding author

Abstract:

58
A part of the Balkan ultramafic massif is situated in western Serbia and belongs to a

mountain range with several prominent peaks, including Mt. Tara, Mt. Zlatibor, and Mt.

Zlatar. The porosity of ultramafic rocks is generally very low, such that they are classified as

nearly or completely waterless rocks. However, due to tectonic activity and exogenic

processes over geologic time, some ultramafic rocks exhibit a certain level of secondary

fracture porosity. Hydraulically interconnected fractures can form aquifers of the fractured

type, such as the one found in Gruda on Mt. Zlatibor. On this location, the quality parameters

of the groundwater in the fractured aquifer, drained via a spring called Bijela Česma,

prompted detailed multidisciplinary investigations aimed at defining the elements of the

aquifer for commercial water bottling purposes. Given that the investigations were

comprehensive, the results allowed high-quality interpretation of the hydrogeologic

conditions and provided the background for developing a hydrodynamic model of the

fractured hydrogeologic system in the ultramafic rocks at Gruda. Modflow software was used

for modeling. This software is primarily intended for intergranular aquifers, but no programs

are available for fractured aquifers in hard rocks with pronounced discontinuities. Modeling

of the fractured aquifer in the ultramafic rocks at Gruda provided the following information:

size of active infiltration surface, hydraulic conductivity of the porous medium, rate of

recharge, residence time of a drop of groundwater from entry to exit, graphical representation

of streamlines, and the like. Despite these difficulties, the results are satisfactory. The values

of the analyzed parameters are believed to be objective and indicate a certain possibility of

using Modflow in hydrodynamic modeling and solving hydrogeologic problems that involve

hard rocks and fractured porosity. In practice, this is especially important for sanitary

protection zoning of groundwater sources that rely on fractured aquifers.

59
Keywords: ultramafic rocks; fractured aquifer; hydrogeologic fracture system; hydrodynamic

model; Serbia.

Journal of Hydrology

Hydrodynamic model of hydrogeologic fracture system in Gruda ultramafic rocks,

western Serbia

Competing interest statement

We confirm that the manuscript has been written and approved by all the stated authors. The
authors also declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Authors:
Zoran Nikić,
Milenko Pušić,
Petar Papić,
Nenad Marić

Journal of Hydrology

Hydrodynamic model of hydrogeologic fracture system in Gruda ultramafic rocks,

western Serbia

Zoran Nikić a*, Milenko Pušić b, Petar Papić b, Nenad Marić a

a University of Belgrade, Faculty of Forestry, 11030 Belgrade, Kneza Višeslava 1, Serbia
b University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mining and Geology, 11000 Belgrade, Đušina 7, Serbia

Phone: +381 (11) 3053 - 903

email address: zoran.nikic@sfb.bg.ac.rs
ORCID: 0000-0002-4237-7186
* corresponding author

Highlights:

60
1) Modflow software was used for hydrodynamic modeling of a fractured aquifer

2) The outcome was a clearer picture of the fracture system in ultramafic rocks

3) The fracture system in solid rock was classified as hydrogeological hysteresis

4) The identified epi-fracture zone is part of the fractured aquifer in solid rock

5) The derived hydrogeologic parameters of the fractured aquifer are deemed objective

61