—wiethe CHAPTER 2: BASIC AERODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS In this chapter several basic aerodynamic principles and their applications to airplane aerody- namics will be discussed. Throughout the discussions in this chapter the airflow will be considered steady. This means that all flow properties such as pressure, velocity, temperature and density are considered to be independent of time. Except in a small region close to the airplane surface, where viscosity is important, the airflow will also be assumed to be non-viscous or inviscid, When an airplane model is placed in the middle of a windtunnel test section, the uniform airflow will be disturbed. This produces pressure forces on the model surface which in turn are responsible for lift and induced drag. In addition, there will be friction forces which cause friction drag. To explain the friction drag which acts on the model, the airflow must be considered to be viscous, at least in the region adjacent to the surface of the model. That region of the flow will be referred to as the boundary layer. To understand and model these physical phenomena and athers, some basic aerodynamic prin- ciples must be derived and discussed. Also, several applications of these principles wil! be outlined. ‘The following basic aerodynamic principles are discussed: 2.1 The continuity equation 2.2 The incompressible Bernoulli equation 2.3 Compressibility effects: the isentropic equation of state and an expression for the speed of sound 24 The compressible Bernoulli equation 2.5 Measurement of airspeed 2.6 The Kutta-Joukowski theorem 2.7 The linear momentum principle 2.8 Viscous effects, boundary layer and flow separation 2.1. THE CONTINUITY EQUATION Before discussing the continuity equation the concept of streamlines will be introduced. A streamline is a curve along which the tangent at any point on the curve always coincides with the flow velocity vector at that point. A group of streamlines adjacent to each other is referred to as a streamtube, Figure 2.1 shows an example of a stroamtube. From the definition of streamtube it is evident that the flow velocity normal to the exterior sur- face of the streamtube is always zero. ‘Therefore, following the principle of conservation of mass, all mass passing through Section 1 in Figure 2.1 must also pass through Section 2. Chapter 2 BBasic Aerodynamic Principles and Applications Exterior surface element: no velocity component perpendicular to element le of a Streamtube The cross sectional area of Section 1 is: A, and the local velocity of the flow is: V, . The product of A, and V, is the flow volume per second, in ft3/sec. ‘Therefore, the mass flow rate, 1 is given by: m = OAV) = QrA2V2 QD For constant mass flow, evidently: mm = gAV = constant (2.2) This equation is known as the streamtube compressible continuity equation, Definition: In incompressible flow, the density, g remains constant. If the airflow is to be considered incompressible, the density should remain constant throughout the entire streamtube. If that is the case, Eqn (2.1) can be written as: AW, = AnV2 3) Therefore, Eqn (2.2), in incompressible flow becomes: AV = constant (24) This equation is known as the streamtube incompressible continuity equation, The walls of a windtunnel can be thought of as the exterior surface of a streamtube. For a low speed windtunnel the airflow can be regarded as incompressible (a more precise criterion will be discussed in Section 2.5.2). In such a case, Eqn (2.4) shows that the airspeed can be increased by decreasing the cross-sectional area. This explains why the windtunnel test section has the smallest cross-sectional areato achieve higher test speeds. Figure 2.2 showstwo examples of low speed wind tunnels, 4 Chapter 2Basic Aerodynamic Principles and Applications Closed circuit tunnel Open circuit tunnel ‘Test section Propeller Test section SS S== = Motor , t=] Motor Propeller Figure 2.2 Examples of Low Speed Wind Tunnels 2.2, THE INCOMPRESSIBLE BERNOULLI EQUATION Consider a streamtube with length, ds, while only pressure forces act on its surface. Such a streamtube is depicted in Figure 2.3. (p + dpyA + dA} V+dv : Figure 2.3 Pressure Forces Acting on a Streamtube Applying Newton’s Second Law to the streamtube segment resulls in: mY = pA + (p + Baa = (p + dp(A + dA) = = Adp (2.5) Chapter 2Basie Aerodynamie Principles and Applications where: the product dpdA has been neglected because it is a second order term, Observe that the weight of the air mass has also been neglected in Egn (2.5). For horizontal flow that certainly is acceptable. The left hand side of Eqn (2.5) can be cast in the form: miY = m Wvds QV Ly dvds _ m ave . at ds dt ~ 2 ds 26) It is now possible to rewrite Eqn (2.5) as: Ads 1 aye 7 Ads ap + 4 avy = 0 27 Sincem = QAds , Eqn (2.7) can be written as: oy Lay? = etgiv=0 (28) Eqn (2.8) is reterred to as Buler’s equation of motion along a streamline, Ifthe density, 9 remains constant within the streamtube (incompressible flow assumption) it is possible to integrate Eqn (2.8) directly and produce: p + 50V? = constant (29) This result is known as the incompressible Bernoulli equation. Iis applicable along a stream- line in incompressible flow. ‘The reader should realize that Egn (2.7) states that the work done by the pressure forces equals the change in the kinetic energy of the air mass. Therefore, Eqn (2.9) is not applicable in situations where energy is added to the airflow. The latter is the case in jet engines and in propellers. Anexam- ple application to a low speed windtunnel will now be presented. Example 2.1: The windtunnel in Figure 2.4 has a test section at Station 2 of 4 ft by 4.25 ft. At Station | its cross section measures 13 ft by 13 ft. At some tunnel speed, the manometer reading is 28 inches. The manometer liquid has a specific gravity of 0.85%. Calculate the airspeed in the test section. Assume that the flow is incompressible and that standard sealevel conditions prevail, Solution: From the manometer reading, the pressure difference between Stations | and 2 can be determined as: op = FB sin(30")x0.85x62.4 = 62.4 Ibs/ft? (2.10) Application of Bernoulli's Eqn (2.9) to Stations 1 and 2 yields: * Specific gravity is defined as the ratio between the mass density of a substance to that of water, Water density is 1.94 slugs/ft3. The specific weight of water is therefore: 32.1741.94 = 62.4 Ibs/I8, 16 Chapter 2Basic Aerodynamic Principles and Applications 4ftx 4.25 ft fx Bh Station 2 Station 1 High speed > 28 inches _ yh ——_— Low speed Low pressure High pressure Figure 2.4 Windtunnel Set-up for Example 2.1 Pit SOV) = pp + F0V2" Quy From the continuity Eqn (2.4) it follows that: ALY, = AQV2 (2.12) By eliminating V, from Eqns (2.11) and (2.12) itis found that: 2 > A 2 A Py - P= dofve - (2) v| = yore - ()} (213) 20) = pai/o 1 (3) /2x62.4/0.002377 _ 229f/see (1a) 2.3. COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECTS When the airtlow is regarded as compressible, the internal energy of the airflow must be consid- cred. In this section, the so-called isentropic condition (equation of state) and an expression for the speed of sound will be derived. 2.3.1 THE ISENTROPIC EQUATION OF STATE According to the first law of thermodynamics (Ref. 2.1, page 6), an amount of heat, dq, added toa unit mass of gas will result in a differential change in energy, de, und an expansion of volume, Chapter 2 0Basic Aerodynamic Principles and Applications dy, of the gas. The quantity, v, is defined as the specific volume. dq = de + pdv (2.15) In most applications of subsonic aerodynamics, the heat wansfer within the flow can be ne- glected, except in a small region adjacent to the airplane surface, where viscosity and heat condue- tion may be important. For that reason, Eqn (2.15) can be approximated as: de + ply = 0 (2.16) Because air can be thought of as « perfect gas, the following two relationships apply in accor- dance with Ref. 2.1, page 12: de = C\dT 17 and: Cy + gk = Cy (2.18) where: Cy is the specific heat at constant volume in ft#/sec?/°R Cp is the specific heat at constant pressure in ft?/sec?/°R For a perfect gas, the equation of state, Eqn (1.1), cam also be written as: py = gRT (2.19) Differentiation of this equation of state yields: _ pdv + vdp ar = Substitution of Eqns (2.17) and (2.20) into Eqn (2.16) results in: & ep BROW # vdp) + Cy = 0 (2.21) This result can be rewritten as: + s& +B = 0 2.2) By using Eqn (2.18) and defining: ¥ = Cp/Cy (also called the ratio of specific heats of the gas) (2.23) itis found that Egn (2.22) yields yh + 2 =0 (2.24) ‘This equation can be integrated to produce: pv’ = constant (2.25) or: 2B. = constant (2.26) w : . 1s Chapter?Basie Aerodynamic Principles and Applications Equations (2.25) and (2.26) are known as the isentropic conditions or the isentropic equations of state, For air ul normal temperatures, a value of y tures, such as in an engise exhaust, y = 1.33 is 1.4 produces good results. For air at high tempera- better number, ‘The reader should keep in mind that [iqn (2.26) is valid along a streamline in airflow where com- pressibility is important. ‘This tends to be the case at free stream Mach numbers above 0.30. The definition of Mach number is as follows: = M Va (227) where: V is the true airspeed Vj is the speed of sound A discussion of the speed of sound is given in Sub-seetion 2.3.2, 23.2 THE SPEED OF SOUND Asa general rule, air is a compressible medium. When a disturbance producing an infinitesimal pressure change is generated at some point in the flow, this disturbance will he propagated through- out the air as a pressure wave travelling at the speed of sound. Knowing the magnitude of the specd of sound is important. Ifthe flow velocity exceeds the propagation speed of disturbances, these dis- turbances will pile up to form strong waves, called shock waves. These shock waves in tum produce large changes in flow properties. One important consequence of all this is an increase in drag. ‘To derive an expression for the speed of sound, consider a one-dimensional duct with an infini- tesimal pressure wave generated inside the gas at rest. Ifa coordinate system is chosen to be fixed with the disturbance, the gas velocity, V,, will be the propagation speed of the disturbance before being affected by it. The disturbance will then produce infinitesimal changes in density, pressure and velocity. ‘These changes must satisfy both the continuity equation and Euler's equation of mo- tion, Differentiating the continuity equation (2.2) for a constant area duct yields: Vado + QdVa = 0 (2.28) ‘The Euler equation of motion, Eqn (2.9) can be rewritten as: dp + QVadVe = 0 (2.29) Elimination of dV, from Eqns (2.28) and (2.29) produces: 2 _ dp =a 3 Wee (2.30) Because the changes in the flow propertics were assumed to be infinitesimal, the process can be assumed to be isentropic. Therefore, the isentropic equation of state, Eqn (2.26) must apply. Substi- tuting Eqn (2,26) into Egn (2.30) results in: Vat Ve VyeRT 31 where the perfect gas relationship of Eqn (2.19) was used in the last step. Chapter 2 19Basic Aerodynamic Prineiples and Applications One important result of Eqn (2.31) is that the speed of sound varies with the square root of the absolute temperature. This implies that the speed of sound is constant in the stratosphere, where T is constant In the standard troposphere, in accordance with Eqns (1.15) and (2.31) the ambient speed of sound decreases with increasing altitude as follows: Vu = J/fverty{1 = 6.875«10-%)] = 1,116.39 /[1 — 6875x10-%n) f/see (2.32) where: h is measured in feet (ft) in the English system. In the metric system it can be shawn that: V. = 340.3 /(1 - 2.255x10-%h) m/sec 2.33) where: h is measured in meters (m). As an exercise the reader should check equations (2.31) and (2.32) against the numerical results listed in Tables Al and A2. 2.4 ‘THE COMPRESSIBLE BERNOULLI EQUATION In the case of isentropic, compressible flow, Eqn (2.9) can be integrated in the following manner. By using Eqn (2.26) to eliminate the density, 0, in Eqn (2.9) to yield: cnt + hav? = 0 (2.34) where: C is the constant in Eqn (2.26). Eqn (2.34) can be integrated to produce: Wy pil Wy) 4 Ly? = ( a am) € pi + ZV? = constant (2.35) With the help of Egn (2.26) this result ean he changed to: a \e yn (; i) B+ 4y Fn (2.36) is known as the compressible Bernoulli equation, As stated before, this equation applies to isentropic flow. It is shown in Ref. 2.1, page 55, that Eqn (2.36) also applies to adiabatic flow in which no heat transfer occurs along the streamline, That implies that Fqn (2.36) also applies with shock waves present. In sucha case, Eqn (2.36) can be interpreted as the conservation of cnergy across the shock waves (Ref.2. 1, page 56). For more details on shock waves the reader is encouraged to consult Re! (2.36) 20 Chapter 2Basic Aerodynamic Principles and Applications 2.5 MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED 2.5.1 LOW-SPEED AIRSPEED INDICATORS (INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW) Consider a pitot static tube as shown in Figure 2.5. Static pressure, p @ @ vy Static lead ——>} Pitot lead Pressure gauge, calibrated as airspeed indicator Figure 2.5 Example of a Pitot-Static Tube Application of the incompressible Bernoulli equation (2.9), to a point | (located far away from the pitot tube) and to a point 2 (located at the inlet of the pitot tube) yields: p+ ae? =p =P 37) where: Pr isthe pressure at the stagnation point (zero speed). This pressure is also called the stagna- tion pressure or the total pressure. It follows that; ap =tov?=q (2.38) where: 7 is defined as the dynamic pressure. Next, the density, 9, in Eqn (2.38) is replaced by the standard sealevel value, Following that the equation is solved for airspeed, called the equivalent airspeed, Ve: (2.39) ‘The pressure difference, (p; — p) can be sensed by the pitot tube shown in Figure 2.5. The airspeed indicator can be calibrated to indicate Ve with the help of Eyn (2.39). Therefore, the airspeed indicator essentially operates as a pressure gauge. Chapter 2 21Basic Acrodynamic Principles and Applications The true airspeed, V, at any altitude can be expressed as a function of Ve as follows: = /2— P) Po Ve v= /P - Me (2.40) yo ‘The reader should observe that at sea-level, where o = 1.0, the true airspeed and the equivalent airspeed are the same: V = Ve as long as the flow is incompressible. 2.5.2 HIGH-SPEED AIRSPEED INDICATORS (COMPRESSIBLE FLOW) ‘The ratio of true airspeed to the ambient speed of sound at the same points called the Mach num- ber in accordance with Eqn (2.27). Whether airspeed is considered to be low or high, depends on the Mach number, M or Ma. . Flight speeds where: Max < 1.0 are referred to as subsonic. Flight speeds where: M.. > 1.0 are referred to as supersonic. Flight speeds in the range of roughly: 0,80 < Mw < 1.2 are referred to as transonic. ‘The actual Mach range for which the flow over the surface of an airplane is transonic depends strongly on the configuration. Wing sweep angle and wing thickness ratio are some of the major parameters which determine this. Airplanes with no sweep and thick airfoils become transonic at much lower flight Mach numbers than airplanes with significant sweep and thin airfoils. For a de- tailed discussion of these effects, see Reference 2.2. Roughly speaking, for flight Mach numbers above 0.30 the compressible Bernoulli equation should be used. In this case, Eqn (2.36) will be applied to two points in the flow field, points 1 and 2 in Figure 2.5. The following expression is obtained: v\p 4 ty: = (_v_\p (2a)B +a = (-4)8 at Application of the isentropic equation of state, Eqn (2.26) to the same points 1 and 2 results in: 2 - a (242) py py Next, P; will be eliminated between Equations (2.41) and (2.42) to yield - Ga)e or, + 1)" -1 (2.43) 2 ‘Chapter 2Basic Aerodynamic Principles and Applications y-1 {ere+y—| an From this equation it can be seen that when (p, — p)/p is measured, the Mach number can be calculated. An instrument which measures both (p, — p) and the static pressure, p, to indicate the ‘Mach number through Eqn (2.44) is called a Mach meter. Note, that a conventional airspeed indica- tor will only measure (p; — p) When, in the calibration of an airspeed indicator, (p, ~ p)/p is replaced by (p; ~ p)/py and Va is replaced by Va, . the resulting airspeed is called the calibrated airspeed, Ve : on + 1) -1 (2.45) Eqns (2.44) and (2.45) can be used to establish a relationship between the true Mach number and the calibrated airspeed. Solving Bgn (2.45) for (p, — p) results in: Pc — P= Pol -1 (2.46) Next, Eqn (2.46) is substituted into Fiqn (2.44) to yield the following relationship between M and Ve QA7) Figure 2,6 represents aplot of true Mach number versus calibrated airspeed for constant pressure altitudes. This plot was obtained with Eqn (2.41). In certain applications it is convenient to solve Eqn (2.44) for the term (p, — p) as a function of M: xe} -1 (2.48) Po p = pil + Observe that (p; ~ p) in incompressible flow is exactly equal to the dynamic pressure (See Eqn 2.38). However. in a compressible flow, the stagnation pressure is increased due to compressibility. Chapter 2 2Basic Aerodynamic Principles and Applications From Ref. 2.3 TRUE MACH NUMBER ANS lll-eeeal)9-)"] f= MACH NUMBER 52 , ICAO STANDARD ATMOSPHERE BJ Vex AIRSPEED INDICATOR READING 2 4 INDICATOR CALIBRATED TO peg eCopt or eee CALIBRATED AIRSPEED, Ve- KNOTS Figure 2.6 Effect of Mach Number and Altitude on Calibrated Airspeed 4 Chapter 2Basic Aerodynamic Principles and Applications This can be shown with the help of Eqa (2.48). First, note that: {(y — 1)M?/2| ~ 0.2M? for air. Next, note that for small Mach numbers: 0.2M? < 1,0. Therefore, Eqn (2.48) can be expanded with the binomial expansion formula to yield 1Q = 1b) 4M Fi z Mei + gM + ght + LM +...) (2.49) ‘The reader is asked to show that: Bat = lev? = q (2.50) Therefore: pope tov + dwt + abut + oie + (251) Iti seen that aM = 03: = 1.0227 2.52) at M Pr - P os: BRP = 1.064 q ‘Therefore, the effect of compressibility on dynamic pressure is seen to be small at Mach numbers below 0.3, Above Mach numbers of about 0.5 the error made by neglecting compressibility is more than 6%, Compressibility effects should then be accounted for. ‘The reader is urged to memorize the following relationship which follows from Eqn (2.50): a= 3 po kM? = Epo 8M? = 14813 dM (2.53) ‘An example application of the effect of compressibility on an airspeed indicator, calibrated for incompressible flow, wil! now be discussed, Example 2.2: An airspeed indicator on an airplane is calibrated in accordance with the incom- pressible flow assumption, While flying at sealevel, the indicator shows 500 mph. What is the true airspeed? Assume standard atmospheric conditions. Solution: Because the airspeed indicator is a pressure gauge, it will measure the true pressure difference, (p, ~ p) . Therefore: Chapter 2 25Basic Aerodynamic Principles and Applications p: — p = Apyv? = 4x0.002377(500x1.467)? = 639.4 pst The true Mach number can now be calculated from Eqn (2.44): 4 +a) ap de és + 1) ~} = 03917 y 4) \3, 116. Therefore, M = 0.6259 and the corresponding true airspeed is: V = MY, = 0.6259x1,116.4 = 698.76 fps = 476.3 mph It is seen, that this airspeed indicator overestimates the airspeed by about 5%. 253 AIRSPEED CORRECTIONS Actual airspeed instruments aboard airplanes are calibrated to read true airspeed at all Mach urnbers under standard sealevel conditions, provided no instrument or static pressure source errors present, To obtain airspeed from an imperfect airspeed instrument operating under non-standard conditions requires that the corresponding errors be accounted for. To this end, the following defini- tions for various airspeeds are used: V, is the instrument indicated airspeed which is uncorrected for errors. It includes the stan- dard sealevel adiabatic compressible flow effect. Vy (IAS) is the indicated airspeed corrected for instrument error, AV, , only: Vi = V, + AV, (254) V¢ (CAS) is the calibrated airspeed. It is equal to the indicator reading corrected for position Vy, also corrected for instrument error: Vi + AV, (2.55) Ve (EAS) is the equivalent airspeed. Itis equal to the indicator reading corrected for instrument error, for position error and for adiabatic compressible flow at the particular altitude: Ve = Vo — AVe (2.56) where: AV¢ is called the compressibility correction. 26 Chapter 2Basic Aerodynamic Principles and Applications Vis the true airspeed. It is calculated from: Vv vas 2.57) Ve (2.57) The various corrections will now be discussed. The instrument error, AV, can be determined during laboratory calibration tests. The position error, AV» arises from the location of the static pressure port on the airplane. Two examples of typical static port locations are shown in Figure 2.7. It can be conjectured from these examples that the static port locations will normally not provide for ambient (i. free stream) static pressures. The surface of the airplane causes distortions in the flow away from ambient conditions. ‘To determine the error (position error) caused by the position of the static port the airplane is flown under a number of speed and altitude conditions in formation with a "pacer” airplane which has been accurately calibrated. By flying both airplanes together under stabilized speed conditions, the indi- ‘cated readings of Mach number, airspeed and altitude are recorded for both airplanes. The indicated readings from the pacer airplane are first reduced to true values, The difference between the true and the indicated values for M and the test airplane is called: AMp, so that: M = M, + AM, (2.58) ‘The position error, AV, can now be calculated from: av, AM, y, = eam, = fo AV = GMM = Gazavo (2.59) where: (AM/dV,) is found by differentiating Eqn (2.47). An alternative is to calculate (M/aV.) as follows: = dM dp aM/aVe = GE aye (2.60) Differentiation of Eqn (2.48) results in: 1+ 25 1ye aM — _j___27 | (2.61) yMp (2.62) ayrtt y. we| bh ve (2.63) *) } Chapter 2 2 aM aveBasic Aerodynamic Principles and Applications Courtesy: Beech AIRSPEED ALTIMETER, Courtesy: Cessna source RATE-OF-CLMB. DIEFERENTIAL PREseURE, WoicATOR static SysTEM DRAIN VALVE SOURCE SELECTOR NORMAL STATIC Source NORMAL STATIC ‘Source Figure 2.7 Examples of Static Port Locations on Two Airplanes 28 Chapter?Basic Aerodynamic Principles and Applications Eqn ( range of pressure altitudes. These results should be used in conjunction with airspeed corrections on high subsonic airplanes. 33) has been used to generate Figure 2.8, where (4M/dV.) is plotted against V- fora r ase I From Ref. 2.3 [| mise seeeo posirion 2050 }- ERROR ~AIRSPEED wf | at ary firey 4 cone 2) ooaz ® y 2038 > v % iS 3 036 % an % ae 7 8 ,0one 2, Canars? 002 $ 2 ipo 0022 4s 4 , al sth LT 100 200300403 800 Me KNOTS Figure 2.8 Effect of Altitude and Calibrated Airspeed on (@M/aV.) For low speed airplanes, a different procedure can be used. The pressure error, Ap caused by the local velocity at the static pressure port, (V}) being different from the free stream velocity, Ve can be computed as follows: Ap = de0V? — dev? (2.64) From this it follows that: V2 - Vv? _ (Vi + AV») - V7__2aV, v2 (vy, + Av,} V, + 2AV, Ap 7 (2.65) Chapter 2 29Basic Aerodynamic Principles and Applications 1 (2.65) shows that AV,/V; isa function of Ap/q which depends on factors such as weight, 1 per flap deflection and other airplane configuration parameters. The quantity Ap/q mustbe determined from flight tests or from windtunnel tests for different flight conditions as well as for different air- plane configurations. Finally, the compressibility correction AV. must be derived. To do this, rewrite Bqn (2.48) as: Ye bya 80)" 1m 1+ vigS2) = 1 66) POP »( ay VOD (2.66) By equating Eqn (2.66) to Eqn (2.46) it follows that: The difference between Vz and Ve is AV; . The compressibility correction, AV. is plotted ver- sus V_ for a range of altitudes and Mach numbers in the standard atmosphere in Figure 2,9. Reference 2.3 contains a more detailed discussion of methods for in-flight measurement of speed and calibration of airspeed and Mach indicators. 30 Chapter 2‘Basic Aerodynamic Principles and Applications From: Ref. 2.3 500 J 40 KNOTS: oe =e 360 340 ea fa 300 CALIBRATED AIRSPEED, Ve 5%; SS 3 ee | AN Bey 053 g zat 05 * ay> eon ° gS" i ® se | = + | yo oe & 8 2 2» 8 * 38 SLONM 2Ae Figure 2.9 Effect of Altitude and Calibrated Airs; Compressibility Correction speed on the Chapter 2 31Basie Aerodynamic Principles and Applications 2.6 THE KUTTA-JOUKOWSKI THEOREM The phenomenon of a wing producing lift can be explained with the concept of a vortex. A vor- tex produces a flow field of circular streamlines with induced velocity magnitude given by: vy =f (2.69) where: Cis aconstant*. Figure 2.10 shows the relationship between a vortex and its induced veloc- ity, The strength of a vortex is determined by its circulation, I. The circulation of a vortex is defined as: re frog (2.70) \ where the integration is taken along a closed curve (1) as shown in Figure 2.10. Closed curve 1 Figure 2.10 Relationship Between a Vortex and Induced Velocity ‘As an example of evaluating the integral of Egn (2.70), consider a closed, circtlar path around the vortex, as shown in Figure 2.10. The circulation is then given by: 2x 2 re | vyrat = ef a= ac (7) [cfollows, that the constant, C, in Egn (2.69) can be expressed in terms of the circulation through Ega (2.70) so that Eqn (2.69) can in turn be written as: =til Vo= e+ (2.72) ‘The flow around an airfoil (or wing section) can be represented by a vortex as shown in Figure 2.10, That this is the case can be visualized by considering a typical flow situation around an airfoil: see Fig. 2.112. Such a flow situation can be seen to be analogous to the flow situation depicted in Fig. 2.11b where the idea of a vortex is superimposed, * This equation is an analog of the so—called Biot and Savart Law. See Ret. 2.4, page 128. 32 Chapter 2