How Fiber Optics Work

When we refer to “fiber” in this guide we are talking about fiber optic Internet, which is a form
of fiber-optic communications. By sending a beam of light through fiber optic glass cables, we
are able to transfer information through what is a truly fascinating process.

Optical Fibers
Fiber cables are made up of many smaller optical fibers. These fibers are extremely thin, to be
specific they are less than a tenth as thick as a human hair. Though they are thin, they have a
lot going on. Each optical fiber has two parts:

 The Core:Usually made of glass, the core is the innermost part of the fiber, where the
light passes through.
 The Cladding: Usually made of a thicker layer of plastic or glass, the cladding is
wrapped around the core.

These two parts work together to create a phenomenon called total internal reflection. Total
internal reflection is how light is able to move down the fibers, without escaping. It is when the
light hits the glass at an extremely shallow angle, less than 42 degrees, and reflects back again
as if reflecting against a mirror. The cladding keeps the light in the core because the
glass/plastic it is made of has a different optical density or lower refractive index. Both these
terms refer to how the glass bends (refraction)and therefore slows down the light.

Light is transmitted down the fiber in LED or Laser pulses that travel extremely fast. These
pulses carry binary data, which is a coding system that makes up everything we see on the
Internet, even the words you are reading right now. Binary code is made up of bits, which are
just ones and zeroes. These bits send messages in organized eight-part patterns, called bytes.
It is easy to translate the bits of binary into light pulses. One pulse means one and no pulse
means zero. These pulses can travel sixty miles before they experience any degradation. To
transport data across thousands of miles these pulses go through optical amplifiers that boost
their signal so that no data is lost.

The Last Mile

Once the pulses reach their destination, an optical network terminal (ONT) converts the light
pulses into electrical Ethernet. This is how light becomes something you can use to actually
connect your devices to the Internet. This conversion happens at the end of the Last Mile,
which isn’t actually a mile at all, but a term for the last stretch of fiber that connects
the consumer to the backbone of the Internet.

The backbone of the Internet is what makes it possible for people across the globe to connect
via the web, and most of it is made of fiber optic cables. Fiber optic Internet may seem like
brand new technology, but it has actually been around since the early days of the Internet. In
1988 fiber optic cables were laid under the ocean to connect the U.S. and Europe. They were
 the first submarine lines to be laid, and today they have expanded to crisscross the entirety of
the ocean floor.

The backbone is the core of the Internet. The instant you connect to a website, no matter the
device or the destination, multiple steps are being taken to bring you there, and every one of
them is connected by the backbone.

Types of Last Mile Connections

There are several types of last mile fiber connections an Internet service provider (ISP) can
install, each one varying in how pure your fiber optic Internet connection actually is. Each one is
referred to as “Fiber to the X” or “FTTX”, with x representing where the optical fiber connection
actually ends.

 FTTP/FTTH/FTTB/FTTD: Fiber to the premise, home, business or desktop are the most

direct fiber lines. With them, you are getting pure fiber straight to your residence, with no copper
cables involved. These are also the most expensive fiber connections for the ISPs.
 FTTB: With fiber to the building, the fiber line is distributed throughout the building by
copper lines. This is a popular choice for apartment buildings, hotels, schools or buildings that
provide Internet to several different businesses.
 FTTC/FTTN/FTTS: Fiber to the cabinet/curb, neighborhood, or street are the most
common fiber connections. Fiber is delivered to a street cabinet, around 1000ft from the farthest
premise, and is then dispersed by copper cables. It is the most affordable fiber optic Internet
connection for ISPs because they do not have to invest in costly infrastructure to the individual
premises, and it can be re-distributed if/when new residence or businesses move in.Back to Top

Fiber Competitors
Fibers biggest Internet competitors are DSL, Cable and Wireless Internet. DSL Internet is
provided by copper phone lines that have been the norm for over a hundred years. Cable
internet also uses copper, but unlike DSL it uses coaxial cables were originally used for cable
TV services. Fixed Wireless Internet, like cell phone service, is provided through radio waves
broadcasted from towers, and then sent over frequencies.

As with anything, there are pros and cons to fiber Optics when compared to its competitors.

DSL Pros
Low Fiscal and Environmental Costs: DSL does the least amount of damage, both
environmentally and economically. Copper cables can usually be found even in the most rural of
areas because it was originally laid for telephone connections. The cables can be reutilized, so
new building projects are not necessary. Fiber optic infrastructure or wireless towers can be
expensive, and come at the added price of natural habitats, not to mention added Co2
emissions. On the other hand, fiber infrastructure doesn’t require electricity, which is very eco-
friendly. Of all the competitors, cable produces the least data for the most electricity.

Availability: Again, copper cables have already been laid in most areas for telephone use so,
as long as they are in good condition, reusing them to create Internet service is fairly simple. At
this time, fiber optic Internet isn’t available in many rural areas, but bringing faster and more
reliable Internet to rural America is becoming a growing priority for both municipalities and
providers.

Copper Cables

DSL Cons
Interference: Copper wires can do serious damage if not properly installed and maintained.
They can release electromagnetic currents that interfere with wires and severely damage a
network. Fiber cables will neither emit electromagnetic waves nor be damaged by them. They
are made from plastic and/or glass, therefore are unaffected by the harmful waves. Copper
cables also conduct electricity, so they pose a fire risk if not properly installed and maintained.
This fact also means they are more susceptible to lightning and can be very dangerous if they
go down during a storm.

Attenuation: Attenuation, means the weakening or loss of a signal. Given distance signals

sent over copper wires degrade much faster than fiber. After 320 ft. of cable, fiber loses only
three percent of its signal, whereas DSL/Cable lose 94% at the same distance.

Symmetrical Speeds: Everyone uses the Internet in one of two ways, downloading and/or
uploading. When you watch something on Netflix, you are downloading. When you upload a
video to YouTube, you are uploading. Downloading and uploading are usually represented as
different speeds.

Most casual users only have to worry about the downloading speed, but telecommuters, those
dependent on telemedicine, and most businesses need higher uploading speeds as well. One of
the many things that makes fiber optic Internet superior is that it provides symmetrical speeds,
meaning its download and upload speeds match. DSL and other types of Internet, only
offer asymmetrical speeds, where download speeds are faster than upload than upload
speeds.

Cable Pros
Price: Cable Internet is one of the most affordable Internet options. Unfortunately, you get what
you pay for, since their speeds aren’t as fast as wireless or fiber, and often include data caps.

Cable Cons
Sharing is Not Caring: Cable can reach download speeds of 100 Mbps (still only a tenth of
fiber but more than DSL), but cable Internet is shared from a central node where the ISP meets
the local coaxial network. This means anywhere between 100-2000 homes have to share a
single node. Sharing like this often leads to low speeds during peak use hours. To manage this,
companies have been throttling users Internet, meaning they slow down your bandwidth after
you have used a certain amount. The idea behind this is to give everyone sharing the node an
even amount of service, but can often be frustrating for consumers. Cable companies have also
been known to put caps on how much data your household needs, and then charge you extra
for additional data.

A Wireless Tower

Fixed Wireless Pros

It’s Wireless: As a testament to its name, fixed wireless truly is wire free. Once a tower goes
up, radio waves transmit a carrier’s signal across frequencies. This wireless means fewer
materials are needed, bringing down the overall cost of purchasing, building, and maintaining. It
also means no fallen cables resulting in loss of service.

Access: There are many areas so rural that providers can’t justify the expense to lay fiber, or
build DSL to them. If you live up a mountain, have very few neighbors, or are so far off the
beaten path your mail comes by carrier pigeon, Wireless maybe your only option. Usually, even
the most rural areas will have some sort of tower near enough to gauge a signal.

Fixed Wireless Cons

Line of Sight: With fixed wireless, the biggest limitation is that the consumer’s antenna has to
be within the line of sight of the provider’s wireless tower. If a line of sight can’t be
established, like if you live in a hilly area, wireless won’t be an option for you.

Congestion: Fixed wireless has the potential to meet fiber optic Internet speeds, but
circumstances prevent the radio waves from ever catching up to the photons. You already
know that Wireless degrades with distance, bringing the speed down with it, but there is a
greater issue at hand. As with a cable connection, fixed wireless users share bandwidth across
their local network, so when many people are accessing the network at once, the speed slows.
To put this in perspective, let’s say you are paying for a 100 Mbps network, but your share that
network with all ten homes in your neighborhood. If everyone is on at once, you are getting 10
Mbps at best. Whereas if you are paying for a 100 Mbps network of fiber, that speed is just for
your home alone.

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OTELCO’s free Bandwidth Calculator to find out today!

The Importance of Broadband

In 2016 3,424,971,237 people worldwide accessed the Internet. In the U.S. alone, 88.5% of
citizens used the Internet. Every year these numbers grow, and the Internet becomes more and
more important to our everyday lives, on an individual, and societal level.

Individual Benefits

Broadband makes it possible to stream movies and shows to your Smart TV.

Entertainment and Connectivity: We have all become used to having the world at our
fingertips. We may browse recipes, check the latest stock information, video chat, stream a
movie, download music, or play interactive online games. With fiber optic Internet, ISPs are able
to provide enough bandwidth to do all of those things at once, without having to sacrifice service
quality.

Smart Homes and Security: Smart Home technology is one of the Internet of

Things (IOT) fastest growing markets. Connect every aspect of your home so it runs
seamlessly from your smart device. You can also monitor and protect your home remotely using
Smart Home Security.

Telecommuting: Fast access to the Internet makes it possible for professionals

to telecommute. Working remotely allows people to live wherever they want, without having to
sacrifice career opportunities. Further, symmetrical fiber speeds make uploading content to/for
work just as easy as it would be sitting in the office.

Distance Learning: Educational and enrichment opportunities for every age group are quickly
becoming the norm at colleges, adult education programs, and even as virtual elementary
schools emerge. Symmetrical speeds, once again, are a key part of this process. They allow
students to quickly upload their assignments from home.

K-12 Education: Aside from the obvious access to information for studying, children and their
parents can always be engaged in the educational process through educational web portals.
These portals provide an interface to communicate with teachers and administrators, real-time
access to assignments and grades, and numerous educational resources.

Access to Health Care: Telemedicine has made advances that allow for the digital transfer of
information that once required traditional telephone technology. Today, high-speed fiber
connections allow health care professionals to evaluate, diagnose, and treat patients in remote
 locations using telecommunications technology. Fiber optic Internet provides seamless video
connections, so patients in remote locations can access medical experts quickly and efficiently
without having to travel.

Independent Living for the Aging or Disabled: Aging in place and independent living are
quickly becoming more important to us as the population ages. The most affordable home
automation products are cloud-based and Internet-dependent.  A wide array of products from
voice-activated devices to panic alarms can have a profound impact on quality of life for senior
citizens, the disabled, and the people who care for them.

Broadband is an important tool for government, big and small.

Societal Benefits
E-Government & Civic Participation: What makes government work as it should is
transparency and public engagement. Access to reliable, high-speed Internet allows live
streaming of municipal, state and federal proceedings – either in real time or more importantly
on demand. Government websites and social media provide a continuous stream of information
to the public as well as forums for public participation. Citizens can pay taxes online, register
vehicles, procure hunting, fishing, and pet licenses, and with the click of a button, communicate
via email with elected officials and staff. Many government entities have employed a messaging
system that allows citizens to use any smart device to alert officials about everything from
dangerous potholes to emergency situations they might witness.

Public Safety: Chapter 16 on The National Broadband Plan addresses the importance of

broadband to public safety. The plan suggests that:

“Broadband can help public safety personnel prevent emergencies and respond swiftly when
they occur. Broadband can also provide the public with new ways of calling for help and
receiving emergency information.”

The plan lists 4 major benefits of the broadband internet:

 Allow first-responders anywhere in the nation to send and receive critical voice, video,
and data to save lives, reduce injuries and prevent acts of crime and terror
 Ensure all Americans can access emergency services quickly and send and receive vital
information, regardless of how it is transmitted
 Revolutionize the way Americans are notified about emergencies and disasters so they
receive information vital to their safety
 Reduce threats to e-commerce and other Internet-based applications by ensuring the
security of the nation’s broadband networks
Energy and Environment: Transportation and power generation are 2 of the biggest impacts
on global warming. Both Smart Grid technology for electricity generation and distribution and
metering, and improved transportation management can develop efficiencies that will greatly
reduce emissions and ultimately the carbon footprint. Hi-speed fiber internet connectivity is
integral in both cases.

Libraries: Particularly during economic downturns, libraries become a haven for the public,
providing computers and internet access, books and movies for inexpensive entertainment, and
assistance with online job searching. Regardless of the economic climate, libraries are
automated to the point that users can download digital media from home, reserve and renew
books online, and access a myriad of web-based enrichment and educational tools.

Economic Growth & Quality Jobs: Data indicates that hi-speed or broadband internet will
improve the economic climate. Not surprisingly, according to some studies, the greatest positive
economic impact is likely to be realized in rural underserved communities. This assertion is
quite logical when one considers population density, income and education demographics, and
the current economy in rural America.  Rural America, simply put, has the most room for
economic growth.

Municipal Broadband

The importance of broadband can no longer be denied, yet almost fifty percent of people living
in rural America do not have adequate Internet service. To put that in perspective, 95% of the
country is considered “rural America”.
Across the country, municipalities are working on building reliable broadband in their area so
their communities can be competitive in the modern economy. Whether they are looking to the
FCC for help or turning to their local ISPs for partnerships, municipalities are still taking on an
 extremely costly and complicated project. With thousands, if not millions of dollars being
invested, municipalities need to consider the longevity of the Internet medium they choose.

It is clear to everyone that fiber optic Internet is the future of broadband, but building fiber
infrastructure isn’t a simple process. There is a reason that only 25% of the country has
available fiber. It isn’t because ISPs and municipalities are not interested, but because there are
immense hurdles involved in these projects.

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Fiber switch board maintenance.

Building Broadband
Whether you are an ISP, a municipality, when it comes to building fiber infrastructure there are
challenges, and concerns. Here are five to be sure to consider:

1. How to build
There are two ways to build fiber infrastructure, and each come with their own challenges to
consider:

 Aerial building: Fiber to the pole is complicated. It is a six to eight-month process, and

with so many variables, there is no way to know the real long-term cost. An ISP with existing
copper infrastructure on poles is going to have the easiest time putting up new aerial fiber, but
they are still looking at the costly price of personnel, installation, and upkeep. Leasing existing
poles really has an immeasurable cost, because, in theory, you will be paying for the lease for
years and years to come. Not to mention, you are still looking at the cost of personnel,
installation, and upkeep.
Building new poles is not just an issue of cost, which is very high, but geography and local
policy. You may have all the funds in the world to build fiber poles, but you can’t build a pole in
the middle of a lake or on the edge of a cliff. Once you find that perfect spot, local regulation is
going to determine whether or not you can actually build it there. Even municipalities working to
install community networks have to consider existing utility infrastructure when putting up new
poles. The upside of installing or owning poles is that they can be leased out in the future.

 Underground: This a broad term, since there are several different ways to bury fiber, it
can be…

 Buried in a new or existing conduit.

 Plowed in using special machinery.
 Put in using directional boring.
 Buried directly in a trench/micro-trench.
 Blown into already buried ducts.
 Buried underwater.

Buried cables can be dangerous if not properly labeled.

No matter which technique is chosen there are going to be some recurring challenges and
concerns. The most important aspect of burying fiber cable is that the ISP/municipality plans
where they are digging since so many different things end up buried underground. Not checking
can be life-threatening if someone ends up accidentally digging up anything with high voltage.

Dig Safe is a nonprofit clearinghouse that works with utility service to ensure the safety of a dig
site. Before anyone digs, they should go to the Dig Safe website to understand the proper
procedure. Once you have marked out where you want to dig, you can call Dig Safe’s toll-free
number (811) to make sure your desired dig area is safe.

Equipment cost is another consideration. Special machinery has to be used to pull up existing
conduit, and plow, trench or bore fiber into the ground. Submarine trenching can be an
especially costly, but necessary, project to undertake. The last thing to consider is how much of
a commotion digging is actually going to cause. A municipality planning on providing new
infrastructure to a whole town is more than likely going to have to go right through the center of
town. That means pulling up existing infrastructure, like roads and sidewalks, then inevitably
having to repair them. Not only is this expensive, but it also leads to road closures that
ultimately annoy everyone in the community.

This issue led to the Dig once practice. When A Municipality works on utility projects, like a
water main, they use that opportunity to place broadband structure as well. This way they save
money and avoid inconveniencing their community multiple times.

2. Personnel
No matter how you cut it, bury it, or string it up fiber projects involve a lot of manpower. These
are not jobs just anyone can do. Parts of the process can be contracted, such as the trenching,
but the majority involves full-time experience employees.

Licensed professionals will have to be hired to run the heavy machinery. Planning infrastructure
requires experienced engineers to map out where and how networks will be built. Wiring and
maintaining the network means hiring both engineers and electricians full time to be in the
central office, on a pole, or in someone’s home. Not to mention, if the personnel doesn’t already
have experience working with fiber the company and/or municipality has to spend time and
money training them.

Engineers have to take care of poles even in dangerous situations.

 When a company doesn’t have enough of the right people for the job they have to budget out
hiring a new person vs. contracting that position out. It can sometimes end up being more
trouble than it is worth, resulting in that project being put aside for another. One of the reasons it
is often easier for municipalities to work in partnership with ISPs to build fiber infrastructure is
because of the experienced and expensive personnel needed.

3. Return on Investment
This is a challenge for any business venture that involves large expensive projects. Building
fiber involves a very large upfront cost. If you are an ISP, in theory, that cost will be paid back
over time by the customer’s monthly fee. Unfortunately, it takes years for the company to see a
return on investment. Let’s look at an example of an ISP building out to a rural area.

Say it costs roughly $20,000 per mile for the ISP to build, plus an additional $600 for each home
they build to. For this example, we will say that there are 13 homes per mile, so if you do the
math (20,000/(13*0.5) + 600) this company is looking at around $3,677 per home.
Unfortunately, not every home is going to subscribe to fiber. We can estimate a take rate of 50%
for this example, with each customer paying $65/month.

The general monthly cost of the provider has to be subtracted from the monthly cost before you
can tell what the actual profit will be, and usually, that is above half of the monthly cost. It is
most likely that the monthly profit for the provider here would be $30. 55. When you divide that
monthly profit by the $3,677 it cost to build to each home, this company is going to have to wait
ten years before they see a return on their investment.

A municipality building fiber is looking return on investment is going to be much different,

because this investment is about community growth and prosperity, not a fiscal profit. The return
on investment a municipality looks for is going to depend on what their broadband goals were.
Some common returns on investment are:

 A thriving business district.

 New businesses opening in the town.
 A younger population moving in.
 More families setting down roots in the community.

4. Finance and Regulation 

Broadband infrastructure is a hot-button issue in government right now. From Washington to
your local state house politicians are trying to decide the best way to connect us all. Whatever
changes the government makes, now or in the future, have to be carefully considered by
anyone building fiber infrastructure.

One way government is helping build better broadband is by providing grant money to ISPs and
municipalities. The FCC Connect America Fund works to provide ISPs money, using the ACAM
model, to build broadband infrastructure in rural areas. This is great for ISPs because it
balances out the high cost of building fiber in rural areas. When an ISP builds new infrastructure
in one specific rural area, they can delegate other funds to connect homes they pass along the
way. This way an ISP can connect more homes. The FCC is also providing funds for state
government grants that can be granted to rural municipalities looking to build out their
broadband infrastructure.

Municipal Broadband is a hot-button issue across the country.

For municipalities to qualify for these grants that have to fit certain criteria. Criteria vary from
state to state, as does the definition of broadband. When we talk about “defining broadband” we
don’t mean a dictionary definition. What we are referring to is a minimum internet speed, defined
by FCC and/or state government.

This definition is a moving target right now, in January 2018 the FCC decided to keep their 2016
definition of broadband, leaving it at 25/3 Mbps. That does not mean every state’s broadband
definition is 25/3 Mbps, in fact, some states have multiple definitions with the option to change
them when needed. To qualify for any government funding though, a community has to have
speeds that fall under a broadband definition. An ISP receiving any government funding has to
build to the definition, though some grants have a specific build to definition. The build to
definition means there are specific speeds an ISP’s new infrastructure has to meet. If those
speeds are asymmetrical, such as 10/10, that ISP will have to build fiber.

Another element of governments increased interest in broadband infrastructure is policy related.

There are currently twenty states with laws that prohibit municipalities from building their own
broadband network. Many of these state laws were lobbied into action by large telecom
corporations. Under these laws, rural towns that don’t appeal to ISPs have no options when it
comes to broadband infrastructure.

The majority of states do allow municipalities to build and maintain their own broadband though,
including 24 states with that have at least one community with their own fiber optic Internet
network. It is possible that, in the future, these state laws will no longer be applicable. Congress
has been working on a bill that would overturn these state laws, paving the way for
municipalities to build their own fiber infrastructure.

“Future Proofing” is an important part of fiber internet infrastructure.

5. Planning for the Future      

When it comes to building fiber, whether it is an ISP or a municipality, building for the future is
an important consideration. It is clear that the Internet of Things is growing and expanding, with
new ways to connect our lives every day. The more things we connect the Internet the faster
speeds we need to power them. That is why so many ISPs and municipalities are choosing to
build future-proof fiber infrastructure now, versus outdated copper that will only need to be
replaced in 10-20 years. More than that though, they have to build for changes in population
and economic landscape.

Building for the future often means building more fiber all at once, versus coming back in late to
install more. Yes, building fiber optic Internet is expensive, but those large expenses have more
to do with the infrastructure than the fiber itself. The cost of doubling strands of fiber can be a
difference of mere cents, whereas the cost of changing infrastructure in the future can be
between thousands, if not millions, of dollars. Dark fiber, optical fibers that are part of a fiber
cable but are not currently being used, can be a great asset to an ISP or municipality. Dark fiber
can be sold or leased out in the future, helping to speed up the investment return for ISPs or
provide extra money to a municipality.

Fiber and ISPs

Despite the concerns involved, many ISPs have dedicated themselves to fiber optic Internet
deployment. Some ISPs have even committed to only building fiber infrastructure going forward,
and are actively working to replace existing copper. OTELCO is one of many ISPs that has
decided to embrace the future by using fiber for all new infrastructure projects, while actively
working to replace copper wires with optical fibers. Now that you know more about fiber optic
Internet you may be more interested in how one company is deploying it.
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Get a Behind the Scenes Look at Lightwave Fiber Deployment

Glossary
Aerial fiber: Fiber strung above ground, usually up on utility poles.

Asymmetrical Connections: Internet connections with different download and upload speeds.

Attenuation: The weakening or loss of a signal.

The Backbone of the Internet: A series of networks that connect the Internet across the world.

Binary:  A code of ones and zeros that builds everything you see on the Internet.

Bits: The individual ones and zeros that make up binary code. Represented as a lower case
“b”, used to measure Internet speeds. As in Kbps, Mbps, and Gbps. 

Bytes: Patterns of eight bits that create binary messages. Represented as an upper case “B”,
used to measure digital storage capacity.
 The Cladding: The cladding is the second layer of an optical fiber that wraps around the core. It
is usually made of a thicker layer of plastic or glass, to create total internal refraction.

Conduit: A tube or trough made of metal, plastic, fiber, or fired clay, that works as a protection
for electrical wiring.

The Core: The core of an optical fiber where the light moves through. The core is made of glass
that has a very low refraction index, allowing the phenomena of total internal refraction to take
place.

Dark Fiber: Optical fiber in a fiber internet cable that is not being “lit” or used by an ISP. Often
an ISP builds in the dark fiber so they can light it up when needed, or lease it out to other ISPs
or interested parties at wholesale cost.

Fiber Optic Technology: Technology that transmits data using light and optical fibers (glass or
plastic threads).

Fiber Optic Communications: The transportation of information through optical fibers, using

glass and pulses of light.

FTTX:

 FTTP: Fiber to the premise, a last mile fiber connection that provides a pure fiber
connection directly to the premise.
 FTTH: Fiber to the home, a last mile fiber connection that provides a pure fiber
connection directly to the home.
 FTTD: Fiber to the desktop, the Last Mile fiber connection that provides a pure fiber
connection directly to the user.
 FTTN: Fiber to the neighborhood, a last mile fiber connection that provides a fiber
connection to a neighborhood cabinet, that is then distributed to the neighborhood through
either a fiber splitter or through copper wiring.
 FTTB: Fiber to the building, or fiber to the basement, a last mile fiber connection that
brings fiber as far as the building, and then distributes it throughout the building with copper
wiring. FTTB can also refer to fiber to the business, a last mile fiber connection that provides a
pure fiber connection directly to a business.
 FTTC: Fiber to the cabinet, or fiber to the curb, is a last mile fiber connection as far as a
local cabinet that is then distributed to residences, and businesses through either a
fiber splitter or (more commonly) copper wiring.
 FTTS: Fiber to the street, is a last mile fiber connection as far as a local cabinet that is
then distributed to customers through either a fiber splitter or (more commonly) copper wiring.
Gbps: Gigabits a second, or a billion bits per second.
Internet of Things: The IoT is actually a complicated, and constantly changing thing. Simply
put, it is the concept of the interconnectivity of many different devices (phones, cars, appliances
etc.) that are all embedded with technology that connects them to the Internet.

Kbps: Kilobits per second, or a thousand bits per second.

Last Mile: The last stretch of fiber that connects the consumer to the backbone of the Internet.

Mbps: Megabits per second, or a million bits per second.

Optical Amplifiers: A device that amplifies optical signals without having to convert them into
electricity. Also known as optical repeaters.

Optical Density: The degree to which a refractive medium retards transmitted rays of light.

Optical Fibers: A flexible transparent fiber made by drawing glass or plastic to a diameter
slightly thicker than that of a human hair.

Photon: Light particles.

Refraction: Refraction is the bending of light (it also happens with sound, water, and other
waves) as it passes from one transparent substance into another.

Refractive Index: An equation that describes how light travels through an object.

Symmetrical Connections: Broadband connections that have the same download and upload
speeds, for example, 25/25 Mbps.

Telecommute: Working from home with the use of technology.

Telemedicine: Remote patient care via telecommunications technology.

Total Internal Reflection: when the light hits the glass at an extremely shallow angle, less than
42 degrees, and reflects back again as if reflecting against a mirror.