Contrib. Plasma Phys. 47, No. 7, 520 – 529 (2007) / DOI 10.1002/ctpp.

200710067

Air Pollution Control by Non-Thermal Plasma

S. Müller∗ and R.-J. Zahn
Leibniz-Institute for Plasma Science and Technology, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 2, 17489 Greifswald, Germany,
EU

Received 7 March 2007, accepted 28 September 2007

Published online 5 November 2007

Key words Non-thermal plasma, air pollution control, dielectric barrier discharge.
PACS 92.60.Sz, 52.40.Hf, 52.80.Hc, 88.33.Xj
The following paper presents some applications of air pollution control. After a brief introduction into recently
developed methods different reactor configurations on the basis of dielectric barrier discharges (DBDs) are
displayed. A preferred system for the treatment of soot comprises a reactor based on dielectric barrier discharge,
which combines both plasma and filter techniques. The special DBD-configuration consists of two electrodes.
One is porous and gas-permeable. The other reactor systems are a surface discharge DBD-system, deflector
arrangement and an ion extraction system. In a first application of these systems the elimination or reduction of
odours in the process of fabricating French fries was tested. Examples for the decomposition of vegetable oil
and the antimicrobial treatment of air.


c 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

1 Introduction
Today the world is faced by several environmental problems. There is an urgent need to reduce pollutions caused
by gas emissions. Pollutants are e.g.: coal-, oil- and gas-burning electric power generating plants, diesel en-
gines, motor vehicles and chemical production plants. Besides gaseous components like VOC (volatile organic
compounds) there are harmful ultra fine particles or aerosols, sometimes substances with disagreeable smells.
Additionally, polluted air contains toxic substances. Increasingly stringent emission legislations are in progress
to cut down the emission of harmful substances significantly. Non-thermal plasma (NTP) techniques offer an
innovative approach to the solution of some environmental problems. In NTPs temperature differs substantially
between the electrons and other particles (ions, atoms, molecules). The electric energy is supplied only to charged
particles, mainly electrons (T ≈ 10.000 K), whereas the neutral gas molecules remain almost cold (room tem-
perature). In this case an NTP also refers to as non-equilibrium plasma or cold plasma. A strong electric field
causes ionization of an air stream and the formation of ions and radicals. These highly reactive species can lead
to partial or total oxidation of air pollutants. Since the typical concentration range of the pollutants is mostly in
the order of several hundred parts per million (ppm), direct interactions between the electrons and pollutants can
usually be neglected. Examples for NTP applications are air-pollution control systems, electrostatic precipitation,
sterilization, and water treatment [1-3].

∗ Correspondingauthor: e-mail: muellers@inp-greifswald.de

Phone: +49 3834 554 448, Fax: +49 3834 554 301

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2 Methods for pollution control

There are many applications of different methods for pollution control (see Table 1).

Table 1 plasma methods

Plasma Examples
Electron beam Removal of SO2 and NOx [4, 5], NOx treatment using low-energy secondary emission electron gun [6],
oxidative decomposition of aromatic hydrocarbons [7], an overview and research needs [8]
Arc For destruction of hazardous waste [9], Modeling [10], Plasma pyrolysis of medical waste [11]
Non-thermal-plasmas
Electrostatic precipitators Review [12], Application in cement industry [13]
Corona Pulsed streamer corona [14, 15], DC corona streamers induced by UV irradiation [16], Scale-up for
a coal fired power plant [17], Plasma based total treatment of waste and low-grade fuels [18], Kinetic
analysis of non-thermal plasmas used for pollution control [19]
DBD NOx, SO2 , VOCs (Reviews) [1, 19, 20]
High frequency discharge Oxidation of activated carbon and methane using a high-frequency pulsed plasma [21]
Glow discharge DC glow discharge in atmospheric pressure air as a source for pollution control [22, 23]
Microwave Microwave-plasma discharge within the flue gas as a potential pollution-control method [24]
Micro-hollow cathode Applications for plasmachemical synthesis and pollution control become feasible [25]
Indirect plasmamethods
UV Pollution and odour control [26, 38]
Ozone Ozone injection for NO control: numerical simulation [27], Removal of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides [28], Effect of ozone injection on the catalytic reduction of nitrogen oxides [29]

One of the most important applications of non-thermal plasma is the corona discharge. This type of discharge is
applied in electrostatic precipitators for aerosol removal. Originally it was demonstrated by Cottrell in a large-
scale application for the collection of sulphuric acid mist [30]. Meanwhile large-scale facilities of pulsed corona
processing for industrial incinerators or collecting fly ash from a pulverized coal-fired power plant are state of
the art. Typical electrostatic precipitator configurations are wire electrodes centred in cylinders or wires mounted
in the centre between parallel plates forming ducts as seen in Fig.1. High voltage electrodes can be shaped in
a multi-pin configuration. The discharge electrodes contain parts with small radius of curvature or sharp edges
which cause locally high electric fields to enable corona discharge. Typical electrode plate distances are 0.2 - 0.4
m, the applied negative voltage can reach 50-110 kV.

Fig. 1 Typical corona discharge configuration for

electrostatic.

The corona discharge can be characterised by a weak glow in the high field region of the discharge electrode.
Depending on the discharge conditions the breakdown is accompanied by streamer propagation towards the other
electrode. In the ”active” region the electrons, positive and negative ions are generated. Other advantageous types
of discharge reactors for environmental applications are dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) implementations. A
DBD consists of two electrodes with at least one insulating layer as a dielectric barrier in between (see Fig. 2a).
The dielectric barrier inhibits the flow of direct current. In the history of plasma physics there have been different
researches on the field of barrier discharge: plasmachemical applications, partial discharges, plasma display
discharges and excimer radiation sources. Several groups reported about a variety of appearances concerning
the spatial structure of the DBD. Due to the extent of possibilities of configurations and discharge parameters,
different terms are often used for the same type of discharge. Concerning the properties of the discharge, there is
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522 S. Müller and R.-J. Zahn: Air pollution control by non-thermal plasma

a rather complicated connection between the parameters. Furthermore different names for the DBDs result from
the obviously varying visible appearance. The DBD is known as barrier discharge, silent discharge, ac-discharge,
normal pressure glow discharge, ozonizer discharge and display discharge. The DBD stands out by the fact that
it can be operated in a wide range of pressure (mbar up to atmospheric pressure); the electrode distance reaches
from tenth of a mm up to a couple of millimeters. Generally the DBD can be operated with sine wave or square
wave alternating voltages in the frequency range of some Hz up to some 100 kHz. An example of the computed
pulsed current and corresponding electric field in the discharge gap for air is given in Fig. 3. There is a strong
growing electric field towards the cathode [31]. The results of numerical simulation indicate a high electric field
around the cathode due to field distortion by space charges. Here the space charge movement is the reason for
the fast discharge development.

Fig. 2 (a) Common dielectric barrier discharge configurations, (b) surface discharge configuration, (c) schema of a dielectric
pellet packed-bed reactor.

a) b)
Fig. 3 Examples of computed pulsed current and corresponding electric field for a gap of 1 mm (Uc = cell voltage, I =
discharge current, E = electric field).

Meanwhile a lot of different special reactor configurations were developed and tested on the basis of DBD for
the plasma production. In an arrangement where one electrode is positioned on top of a dielectric while the
second one is on its reverse side, there is a so-called surface discharge (SD)-DBD (see Fig. 2b). In another
arrangement the second electrode is part of a coplanar electrode system where both electrodes are at the same


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Contrib. Plasma Phys. 47, No. 7 (2007) / www.cpp-journal.org 523

side (at least one electrode is covered by a dielectric). A survey on the peculiarities of DBDs and some results
of properties in extended coplanar electrode systems are given e.g. in [32, 33]. In addition to the configurations
above the dielectric pellet packed-bed reactors shown in Fig. 2c are established. It uses high permittivity dielectric
pellets which are held between a dielectric and two metal electrodes to which usually high voltage ac is applied.
Ferroelectric pellet packed-bed reactors were developed as a type of electrostatic precipitators and were found
to be effective not only in collecting particles but also for VOC decomposition and odour removal. The most
commonly used ferroelectric material is barium titanate. When the ferroelectric materials are exposed to an
external electric field the pellets are polarized and a high field is created at each contact point of the pellets.
This ends up in microdischarges at each pellet and in the vicinity. Packed-bed reactors can easily be modified to
incorporate a catalyst.

3 Reactor configurations and selected plasma treatment applications

Reactor for soot decomposition
There are various technical processes which generate waste streams containing toxic gases and aerosols mixed
with normal air. Alongside the CO2 - and NOX - problem mainly sub-micron soot particles pose short and long
term health risks. One of the reasons is the particle bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) enhancing
the mutation of cell and causing cancer, triggered by the incorporation of small particles. The main source of
sub-micron particles are the different combustion processes. The potential of DBDs for the decomposition of
pollutants or toxic molecules was demonstrated in many contexts before [1]. Obviously in many treatment appli-
cations of common DBD configurations the flow rate, frequency and power consumption are fixed parameters.
The geometrical properties of the reactor (especially length and cross section) influence the results of the plasma
treatment to a large extent. The reactor’s geometry is one of the important parameters influencing the residence
time which should be optimised for a successful treatment. Especially in the case of soot containing flue gas
we assumed that a high residence time of particulates should be promoted and is necessary to avoid regions of
untreated aerosols. The preferred system for the treatment of soot comprises a reactor based on dielectric bar-
rier discharge, which combines both plasma and filter techniques. The special DBD-configuration consists of
two electrodes, one of these is porous and gas-permeable. The porous electrode is made of high-performance
SiC-ceramics. The ceramics-body has the shape of a honeycomb. Beside SiC-ceramics sintered metal filter SMF
has been used. The other electrode has the lay-out of a common dielectric barrier consisting of aluminium-oxide
ceramics covering a metal rod. Fig. 4 shows a schema of the reactor configuration (one unit). The reactor is partly
a ceramic wall flow filter with the channels at one end open and the outlet end plugged. In the axis of the channels
the dielectric barrier electrode is mounted a plasma processing station is formed by the two electrodes. In order
to decompose the toxic and soot-containing harmful substances, the flue gas is first introduced into the processing
station, in which they are subjected to plasma processing, and from which flue gas is let out through the porous
electrode which is gas-permeable but filters and holds back the soot particles. Fig. 5 shows a photograph of a
scaled up reactor with 108 inlet channels.

Fig. 4 Schema of the reactor configuration. Fig. 5 Photograph of scaled up reactor (active
length of channels - 28.5cm, diameter of the di-
electric barrier electrode - 4.2mm, width of the
honeycomb channels - 5.6mm).

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The performance of the reactor in the filtration efficiency is nearly the same as in the model of the honeycomb
filter elements without the inserted electrodes. The degree of soot reduction depends mainly on the pore size of
the ceramics. Normally the back pressure is rising without any cleaning or regeneration due to the collection of
particles. During plasma treatment the back pressure remains nearly constant. Like this a continuous regeneration
of the reactor can be achieved. Reaction products are CO and CO2 . The exhaust gas temperature averaged 190◦
C. In the majority of the experiments the diesel engine exhaust of a small emergency generator
(1 cylinder, 0.406 l) was used to accumulate soot. Usually DBDs do not show any noticeable gas heating effects.
Therefore we can conclude that the soot decomposition is achieved in a cold oxidation process. Thus soot is
constantly oxidised during all engine operation conditions and no filter regeneration by promoting the combustion
of the collected, particulate matter is necessary. Depending on the load of soot the process of treatment can be
controlled by the pulse break ratio of the sustaining voltage. Hence the dissipated power in the discharge can be
optimised in a simple way. Alongside the continuous operation of the reactor a plasma treatment can be chosen
from time to time depending on requirements of operation.

a) b)
Fig. 6 a) The regeneration of a loaded reactor in air, voltage amplitude 9.4kVptp 700µs on, 300µs off, b) Proportions of
carbon and oxygen during the ozone-oxygen treatment (XPS signal in counts per second).

The example in Fig. 6a shows the regeneration of a loaded reactor in air. The process is completed after a short
amount of time. In this case the pressure that is measured at the inlet remains almost constant after 30 min.
To get a better appreciation of oxidation mechanisms soot samples were analysed using X-ray photoelectron
spectroscopy (XPS). In a first step soot was treated with an oxygen/ozone gas mixture. Previous results suggest
that the decomposition process with ozone is a process consisting of three-stages (soot* means decomposed soot)
[35, 36].

I. HC + O3 −− > products

II. soot + O3 −− > soot − O + O2

III. soot − O + O3 −− > soot ∗ +CO/CO2

The proposed reaction mechanism suggests furthermore that in the case of reaction II a soot-oxygen complex
was built (soot-O). So the ratio of carbon/oxygen should be changed. As expected from the equations above both
show an increase of the oxygen bound into the soot surface and a decrease of the carbon fraction (figure 6b). By
GC-MS tests we examined the PAH-16, coronene and other compounds. The PAH are reduced significantly by
the reactor from 21.38 µg/m3 down to <0.3 µg/m3 . Hence we assume that the PAH adsorbed on the soot are
removed, too.
Further developments of reactor configurations and methods
In further experiments we used four different plasma reactor arrangements. Mainly SD-DBD configurations with
structured electrodes were developed and tested.

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Fig. 7 Exploded view of stacked SD-DBD-configuration. Fig. 8 surface discharge configuration and Schema of dis-
charge arrangement grounded casing/extraction electrode .

Stacked SD-DBD-System
The special feature of this reactor configuration are structured electrodes arranged in a compact way. The struc-
tured electrodes are arranged alternating with flat disks from dielectric. Fig. 7 shows an exploded view of such a
stack configuration. An advantage is that there are no additional spacers necessary because the electrodes fulfill
this function likewise. The structured electrode in this example consists of woven wires of stainless steel with a
wire thickness of 0.5 mm and a mesh size of 0.8 mm. The dielectric barrier is formed by a composite material
of mica with a thickness of 1 mm. The stack is sealed on two opposite sides. This enables the working gas to
flow through the configuration in a specific direction. The gas gaps of the DBDs are formed by the exposed parts
of the wire mesh, the wave form of the woven wires and the round shape of the wires. The complete system is
mounted in a casing and embodies the plasma reactor. The stack planes of wire mesh are put on high voltage
potential or ground potential alternately. In this way gas discharges can be initiated between the structured elec-
trodes and the dielectrics with a suitable ac-voltage in the gas gaps. Furthermore the configuration permits the
filtration of aerosols and particles from the polluted gas stream, whereas the woven wire works as filter element.
Consequently the reactor combines both plasma and filter techniques. Apart from gaseous pollutions it is possible
to treat aerosols and particles with such a reactor configuration in the plasma. Another advantage of the open flow
structure is the low back pressure. We chose the following reactor sizes: depth of the electrodes (length in flow
direction) - 50 mm; width - 228 mm. A reactor was constructed with a stack of 150 active woven wire layers.
Realized with a compact design an active electrode area of 3.4 m2 is possible. A comparative large capacity of
the reactor of 25.3 nF is the outcome which is further increased in the treatment of waste air stream containing
aerosols.

Deflector SD-DBD-System
The feature of a second treatment system includes a DBD configuration with a deflection system. The waste
gas stream is directed onto the surface of a structured electrode arrangement by deflecting elements of dielectric
material. This causes an impact of gas molecules and aerosols on the surface of the electrodes, followed by a
deflection of the gas stream. The deflecting elements and the surface of the electrode arrangement cause a lot of
diversions of the gas on the way through the reactor. Accordingly the waste air stream often strikes the surfaces of
the plasma electrodes. The basic principle of the electrode system is similar to the adjustment above. A structured
electrode of woven wires is arranged on the surface of a flat disk from a dielectric and forms the gas treatment
side of the SD-DBD configuration. The flat disk from dielectric is mounted on the side wall of the casing. The
casing is made of stainless steel and forms the grounded electrode of the DBD. Seen fom the gas flow aspect the
gas back pressure of this system is rather low due to the open structure of the gas treatment flow path. In the
experiments we used a reactor with active areas of 485 cm2 on each side wall of the casing. Due to the numer-
ous impacts of the gas molecules and the aerosols at the active plasma electrodes an effective plasma treatment
of the waste gas can be realised. Reactive radicals as well as other plasma species contribute to the cleaning effect.

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Ion extraction SD-DBD-System

This system contains an SD-DBD with structured electrodes mounted in the centre of a pipe. The pipe serves as
a casing and a flow path. A sketch of this arrangement is given in Fig. 8. The basic principle of the electrode
system is the same as in the stack system. One woven wire electrode is positioned on top of a flat disk of a
dielectric while the second one is on the opposite side. The pipe is made of stainless steel, too, and the casing is
grounded. At the inlet of the pipe there is a perforation nearly up to the half length of the pipe. The gas reverse
pressure of this system is low, similarly to the case of the impact system. In these experiments the active areas
of structured electrodes have an extent up to 600 cm2 . In a typical operation mode one of these electrodes forms
the high voltage electrode and the second one is grounded. The plasma is produced in a small part of the reactor,
and the waste gas is mostly not in touch with the plasma part. Therefore this mode is predominantly applied for
reactions by long living species like ozone. In another control mode the SD-DBD was sustained by sine wave
pulse voltages. The polarity was chosen as necessary. In front of the plasma electrodes the grounded casing is
situated. Positive or negative ions are extracted from the discharge side by a potential difference. These ions
penetrate the waste gas and are an auspicious treatment method.

Injection of ozone (injection methode)

In order to examine just the influence of ozone another configuration was used for an external ozone production
and injection. The ozone generator was supplied by a commercial high voltage RF power source. The discharges
were initiated in dry air at a frequency of 312 kHz and a peak to peak voltage of 7.5 kVptp. The resulting ozone
could be injected into the exhaust gas.

4 Experiments and results

The reactors and methods described above were used in different ways. In a first method the elimination or
reduction of odours from the fabrication of French fries was tested. The waste air cleaning system has different
components and 5 openings for gas samples on different spots. At first the waste air from a deep-fryer reaches a
high-efficiency particulate air filter made of foam material (hydrosorp-filter). This material works as a sorption
agent, and a pre-filtration of water and oil aerosols is carried out there. By that, the following systems like
the plasma reactor or an activated carbon filter are largely spared. The electrical parameters of the discharge
configuration were determined by a digital oscilloscope in the usual way. The process diagnostics were done
using UV-absorption spectroscopy (ozone concentration), thermal desorption GC/MS (odour substances), FTIR
(reaction products) and olfactometry (odour). In our experiments this method was used for the smell analysis.
For that, gas samples of approx. 8 liters were taken from the process gas during the preparation of French fries in
different places within a period of 2 minutes. For the determination of the basic level at smells, further samples
of the untreated and unloaded air were taken from the surroundings.

Fig. 9 Odour strength after different treatment procedures.

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For additional investigations we introduced further plasma reactor configurations than described. Fig. 9 shows
results of the plasma treatment. The different plasma configurations are compared with the odour strength of
the raw gas and of the activated carbon filter. In the usual operation, where one of the electrodes is the high
voltage electrode and the other one is grounded, the odour reduction is not optimal. The waste gas is mostly
not in contact with the plasma part. Therefore this mode is predominantly applicable for reactions by long living
species like ozone. The waste air continuously flows through the pipe, but only the high voltage side is penetrated
by ions of both signs. In the mode of sine wave pulse voltages the odour reduction is nearly perfect. Due to the
grounded casing in front of the plasma electrodes positive or negative ions are extracted from the discharge side.
In this example positive ions are extracted on both sides of the mounted SD-DBD-system. By this potential
difference the ions penetrate the waste gas. We assume that the penetration of the waste air enables an efficient
decomposition mechanism of volatile organic compounds (VOC’s) by additional ion-molecule reactions. Further
investigations are necessary to clarify this point. The experiments showed a correlation of odour strength with
odourous compounds such as VOCs. The VOCs were identified mainly as aldehydes by using thermal desorption
GC/MS. The pre-filtration stage has no perfect efficiency in separation. Thereby, the waste gas comprises aerosols
apart from gaseous components. For the demonstration of the effect of the plasma with the ion extraction method
an aerosol stream was introduced into the reactor configuration (Fig. 10a-b). To make the process visible, sulfuric
acid was used. The SD-DBD is arranged on the left side, the aerosol beam is in the middle and the extraction
electrode is on the right side. A clear deflection of the aerosols is carried out in the on-state to the earthed
extraction electrode (Fig. 10b). The deflection demonstrates the charging of the aerosols by extracted ions.

a) b)

Fig. 10 Deflection of aerosols by extracted ions.

Fig. 11 Temporal behavior of vegetable oil decomposition
and the reaction products at 180 C .

Ozone is considered to be an essential reactive species in plasma treatment of gases containing oxygen. Therefore
we tested the decomposition potential of vegetable oil by ozone in a separate experiment by a stacked SD-DBD.
The temporary behaviour of the decomposition process, the reaction products and the influence of the temperature
were measured. In Fig. 11 a result is given for temperature 180◦ C. The reaction products CO and CO2 can be
seen as a result of the decomposition process. The vegetable oil is oxidized in this case. The reaction rate depends
on the temperature and increases with rising temperature [35]. There is a similar result as in the case of the soot
decomposition [35, 36]. When introducing ozone the ozone concentration abruptly diminishes and the reaction
products CO and CO2 are produced. Both components show a fast peak and a subsequent decrease. After this
there follow a rise to a second maximum and a slow decay are scheduled. The temporal behaviour suggests that
the decomposition process is a three-stage process as can be seen in figure 11. A well scaled plasma system for
technical applications should be able to decompose oil aerosols as demonstrated. If the oil aerosol decomposition
is performed by pure ozone the temperature should be high enough for fast reactions. Another possible method
described above is the antimicrobial treatment of air. In this assembling a stacked SD-DBD-configuration was
used. The tests were carried out with Escherichia coli. The germs were given into liquid and then sprayed over
an air stream into the reactor. Results of microbiological tests are presented in Fig. 12. As one can see, there is a
reduction of the total number of microorganism in all samples. The best result is obtained by using 500 kHz with
7 log10 steps.
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Fig. 12 Results of microbiological reduction tests.

5 Summary
Non-thermal plasma techniques offer an innovative approach for air pollution control. There are various devices
for non-equilibrium discharges and methods for pollution control. The most important applications of non-
thermal plasmas are the corona discharge and the dielectric barrier discharge. Advantageous and successful
implementations of non-thermal plasmas are oxidative decomposition of aromatic hydrocarbons, destruction of
hazardous waste, electrostatic precipitator applications, plasmachemical synthesis (ozone), removal of sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides, decomposition of soot, reduction of odours, antimicrobial treatment of air. Different
reactor configurations were developed and tested for some arrangements.

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