Module 4

Time in Cross-Cultural Communication

Lecture

Plan

I. Cultural differences and time orientation.

1. Monochronic and polychronic cultures.
2. Monochronic vs polychronic: comparative analysis.
II. Linear, flexible, cyclical concepts of time.
1. Linear time:
-the importance of schedules
- focus on the future
- measuring time in small units
2. Flexible time:
- emphasis on relationships
- focus on the present
- reluctance to measure
3. Cyclical time:
- understanding connections
- making decisions
- forging relationships
- focusing on the past
4. Conducting business in linear, flexible and cyclical cultures: guidelines.

Monochronic and Polychronic Cultures

It is essential when communicating in business to understand chronemics
(attitudes toward time), or the way individuals interpret the use of time. Every
culture views time differently and how it relates to the communication process.
Continuing our series looking at cross-cultural communication issues we now turn
our attention to monochronic versus polychronic cultures and the impact they can
have on communication.
Cultures differ significantly in their attitude towards “time” and their ideas about
its importance in human interactions. While time can be measured objectively by
watches and clocks, the importance of time in everyday life is subject to many
interpretations. A continuum that is often used to characterize a culture's attitude
towards time is monochronic versus polychronic. Low-context cultures can
generally be classified as achievement cultures, and they are, as Hall (1989) termed
them, ‘monochronic’, viewing time as sequential and highly scheduled. To them,
time is an absolute. High context cultures, on the contrary, tend to be
‘polychronic’, that is they are apt to be involved in a lot of different activities with
different people at any given time.

Monochronic cultures like to do just one thing at a time. They value a certain
orderliness and sense of there being an appropriate time and place for everything.
They do not value interruptions. They like to concentrate on the job at hand and
take time commitments very seriously. M-time people are oriented to tasks,
schedules, and procedures. As anyone who has had experience with our
bureaucracies knows, schedules and procedures take on a life all their own without
reference to either logic or human needs. M-time is also tangible; we speak of it as
being saved, spent, wasted, lost, made up, crawling, killed, and running out.
In addition monochronic people tend to show a great deal of respect for private
property and are reluctant to be either a lender or a borrower. This is part of a
general tendency to follow rules of privacy and consideration as well as adhere
religiously to plans. Punctuality is considered a positive attribute that conveys the
nonverbal message of being respectful of other persons. Tardiness is interpreted as
rudeness, a lack of consideration for others, or a lack of interest in the job or
meeting. Being late also sends the nonverbal message that you are not well
organized.

Polychronic cultures like to do multiple things at the same time. A manager's

office in a polychronic culture typically has an open door, a ringing phone and a
meeting all going on at the same time. Though they can be easily distracted they
also tend to manage interruptions well with a willingness to change plans often and
easily. People are their main concern (particularly those closely related to them or
their function). For polychronic people, time is seldom experienced as "wasted,"
and is apt to be considered a point rather than a ribbon or a road, but that point is
often sacred. Polychronic cultures are by their very nature oriented to people. Any
human being who is naturally drawn to other human beings and who lives in a
world dominated by human relationships will be either pushed or pulled toward the
polychronic end of the time spectrum. If you value people, you must hear them out
and cannot cut them off simply because of a schedule. P-time cultures stress
involvement of people and completion of transactions rather than adherence to
preset schedules. Their tendency to build lifetime tasks and objectives are more
like desirable outcomes than must do's. Punctuality is not widely regarded. In Latin
American countries, the “manana” attitude (putting off until tomorrow what does
not get done today) has been a source of frustration for time-sensitive U.S.
executives when conducting business with people of that culture.
If you live in the United States, Canada, or Northern Europe, you live in a
monochronic culture. If you live in Latin America, the Arab part of the Middle
East, or sub-Sahara Africa, you live in a polychronic culture.
Linear, Flexible, Cyclic(al) Time

Most studies of time in cross-cultural research follow Edward T. Hall’s analysis in

The Silent Language, The Hidden Dimension that divides cultures into two major
ways of understanding time: those that view time linearly—monochronic cultures
—and those that view time more flexibly—polychronic cultures. Both approaches,
albeit in different ways, see time as being controlled by human beings. In other
words, both approaches share the belief that human beings can manage and control
time.
But there are cultures that seem to disagree with the fundamental concept of human
control over time. As Lewis points out, these cultures have another approach to the
whole question of time, an approach that posits that it is not the human being that
controls time but the cycle of life itself that controls people and human activity.
These cultures, which Lewis calls cyclical, hold the position that human beings
must live in harmony with nature because they are subservient to cyclical events.
This approach seems to be a richer interpretation of the time/culture dynamic. Let's
examine each approach in turn: cultures that follow linear (monochronic) time and
perform one major activity at a time; cultures that are flexible (polychronic) and
that work on several activities simultaneously; and cultures that view time as
cyclical (circular, repetitive) and that allow events to unfold naturally.

Linear time
If you want your dreams to come true, don’t oversleep. (Yiddish proverb)
Stay a while, lose a mile. (Dutch proverb)
Cultures that have a linear concept of time view time as a precious commodity to
be used, not wasted. They prefer to concentrate on one thing at a time and work
sequentially within a clock-regulated timeframe; this appears to them to be an
efficient, impartial, and precise way of organizing life—especially business.
Anglo-Saxon, Germanic, and Scandinavian peoples generally live and work by a
linear clock, measure time in small units, value schedules, and focus on the future.

The importance of schedules.

In cultures that define time in a linear fashion, schedules are critical because they
permit planning and prevent uncertainty. Since these cultures adhere to a
cause/effect understanding of events and reality, schedules are considered sacred.
People from linear time cultures make appointments in small segments (15-30
minutes) and dislike lateness, as this disrupts the schedule and impacts all
subsequent appointments. They prize punctuality and consider promptness a basic
courtesy as well as a proof of commitment. These cultures dislike interruptions and
expect complete concentration on the task at hand; doing two things at once
(taking a telephone call during a meeting) is viewed as being inattentive or may
even be considered rude.
 A focus on the future.
People in linear cultures so value time that they study time management to learn to
get more done every day—an occupation that’s often considered risible by flexible,
multi-tasking, relationship-oriented cultures and impossible by cyclical cultures.
Linear cultures’ belief in the future is unshakeable—after all, the future promises
greater expertise in controlling time and packing more into each time unit. These
cultures also view change positively.

Time measured in small units.

Linear-time cultures (the United States, Switzerland, Germany, Britain, the
Netherlands, Austria, and the Scandinavian countries) measure time in relatively
short periods: minutes, hours, days; plan for the short term; and report earnings and
profits in quarters and years.

The languages of linear-time cultures abound in expressions which capture the idea
of time as a precious entity:
• Time is money. Save time. Don’t waste time. Use time wisely. The early bird
catches the worm. (United States)
• He who hesitates is lost. Strike while the iron is hot. Never put off till tomorrow
what you can do today. (England)
• Time is everything. (advertising slogan for Swissair)
• Uberpunktlich (German expression for being on time, literally, over-punctual)
• Wasting time is stealing from yourself (Estonian proverb)
• Rest makes rust. (Dutch proverb)
• Lose an hour in the morning, chase it all day long. (Yiddish proverb)

Flexible Time
Time is the master of those who have no master. (Arabian proverb)
If it’s not your time, you won’t be born and you won’t die. (Corsican proverb)
In contrast to linear cultures, cultures that view time as flexible are reluctant to
strictly measure or control it. Southern Europeans, the cultures bordering the
Mediterranean, and South American cultures are flexible about time. In fact, the
more things they can do at the same time, the happier they are; interruptions are
welcome and multi-tasking or clustering is the rule. Although they will pretend to
observe schedules in deference to their linear business associates, most Italians,
Spaniards, Portuguese, Greeks, Arabs, and Latinos ignore the passing of time if it
means that conversations or human interactions will be left unfinished.

Emphasis on relationships.
For flexible time cultures, schedules are less important than human feelings. When
people and relationships demand attention or require nurture, time becomes a
subjective commodity that can be manipulated or stretched. Meetings will not be
rushed or cut short for the sake of an arbitrary schedule. Time is an open-ended
resource; communication is not regulated by a clock.
A focus on the present.
People in flexible time cultures tend to focus on the present, rather than the future
(linear cultures) or the past (cyclical cultures). It’s not that they don’t value the
past, nor believe in the future; it’s just that they tend to live very fully in the
present.

A reluctance to measure.
Although adept at business, many people in flexible time cultures find the intricate
measurement of time or earnings performed by linear time cultures tedious and
unnecessary. When pressed, they will comply with the business contingencies
imposed on them by their linear business associates, but their hearts may not be in
these calculations.

Utterances that capture the subordination of the clock to human reality:

• The famous “manana” attitude of the Spanish
• The often repeated “In sha’a Allah” (If God wills) of the Arab
• The Filipino “bahala na” (accept what comes)
• The Turkish proverb “What flares up fast extinguishes soon”
• The Mongolian proverb “Profit always comes with a delay”
• The Italian proverb “Since the house is on fire, let us warm ourselves”

Cyclical time
With time and patience, the mulberry leaf becomes a silk gown.
(Chinese proverb)
A ripe melon falls by itself. (African proverb)
Man has responsibility, not power, over time. (Native American proverb)
Although in fundamentally different ways, both linear time cultures and flexible,
multi-tasking cultures believe they manage and control time; in cyclical time
cultures, however, time manages life, and humans must adjust to time. In these
cultures, time is neither viewed as linear nor as event/person related, but as
cyclical, circular, repetitive. The human being does not control time; the cycle of
life controls people and they must live in harmony with nature and subscribe to the
cyclical patterns of life. Examples of cyclical time cultures include most Asian,
African, and Native American (including the Inuit) cultures.

Understanding connections.
Cultures that subscribe to cyclical time seek to understand linkages and
connections. Links show the wholeness of life and allow contrasts or
contradictions to exist. Cyclical cultures believe that logic is not linear
(cause/effect), nor people-driven, but captures the unity of human experience with
the whole of life, nature, and existence.
“The Masai, a nomadic culture of Kenya, do not compartmentalize time into minutes
and hours but instead schedule time by the rising and setting sun and the feeding of their
cattle. The typical Masai day begins just before sunrise, when the cattle go to the river
to drink. This period is called “the red blood period” because of the color of the
sunrise. The afternoon is “when the shadows lower themselves.” The evening begins
when “the cattle return from the river.” Seasons and months are determined by rainfall
—a particular month lasts as long as the rains continue and a new month doesn’t begin
until the rains have ceased.”
(Adapted from Neuliep, Intercultural Communication: A Contextual Approach)

Making decisions.
In cultures that subscribe to a cyclical view of time, business decisions are reached
in a very different way. Decisions are not made quickly nor in isolation, purely on
their present merits with scant reference to the past; decisions have a contextual
background and are made long term. Unlike linear cultures which see time passing
without decision or action as “wasted,” cyclical cultures see time coming around in
a circle, again and again. The same opportunities will recur or re-present
themselves when people are that many days, weeks, or months older and wiser.
Many cyclical time cultures will not tackle problems or make decisions
immediately in a structured, sequential manner; they will circle round them for a
suitable period of reflection, contemplating the possible links between facts and
relationships, before committing themselves.
Wise men are never in a hurry. (Chinese proverb)
A proposal without patience breaks its own heart. (Japanese proverb)
To know where you are going, look back to where you’ve come from.(Arab proverb)

Forging relationships.
Although people from cyclical time cultures may have a keen sense of the value of
time and respect punctuality, this is dictated by politeness or by form and will have
little impact on the actual speed with which business is done. A liberal amount of
time will be allotted to the repeated consideration of the details of a transaction and
to the careful nurturing of personal relationships. And it is the forging of a
relationship that is all-important; business is facilitated by a degree of closeness, a
sense of common trust, of connection, of linkage, that informs both the present
deal and future transactions.
Humankind has not woven the web of life. We are but one thread within it.
We are all interconnected. (Native American proverb)
Every seed knows its time. You won’t help shoots grow by pulling them higher.
(Japanese proverb)

Focusing on the past.

People in cyclical cultures pay a great deal of attention to the past because they
believe they can find many links and connections there. Since their focus is on the
unity of human experience with the whole of life, planning is very long-term indeed
(decades) and earnings per share or per quarter are far less important than the building
of equity.

How Different Cultures View the Future

In the linear-active, industrialized Western cultures time is seen as a road along

which we proceed. Life is sometimes referred to as a “journey”; death is often
referred to as the “end of the road.” We imagine ourselves as having traveled along
the part of the road that is behind us (the past) and we see the untrodden path of the
future stretching out in front of us.
Linear-oriented people do not regard the future as entirely unknowable for they
have already nudged it along certain channels by meticulous planning. American
executives, with their quarterly forecasts, will tell you how much money they are
going to make in the next three months. The Swiss stationmaster will assure you,
without any hesitation, that the train from Zurich to Luzern will leave at 9:03
tomorrow morning and arrive at exactly 10:05. He is probably right, too. Watches,
calendars and computers are devices that not only encourage punctuality but also
get us into the habit of working toward targets and deadlines. In a sense, we are
“making the future happen.” We cannot know everything(it would be disastrous
for horse racing and detective stories), but we eliminate future unknowns to the
best of our ability. Our personal programming tells us that over the next year we
are going to get up at certain times, work so many hours, take vacations for
designated periods, play tennis on Saturday mornings and pay our taxes on fixed
dates.
Cyclic time is not seen as a straight road leading from our feet to the horizon, but
as a curved one which in one year’s time will lead us through “scenery” and
conditions very similar to what we experience at the present moment. Observers of
cyclic time are less disciplined in their planning of the future, since they believe
that it cannot be managed and that humans make life easier for themselves by
“harmonizing” with the laws and cyclic events of nature. Yet in such cultures a
general form of planning is still possible, for many things are fairly regular and
well understood.
Cultures observing both linear and cyclic concepts of time see the past as
something we have put behind us and the future as something that lies before us.
In Madagascar, the opposite is the case. By contrast, the Malagasy consider the
future unknowable. It is behind their head where they do not have eyes. Their plans
for this unknown area will be far from meticulous, for what can they be based on?
Buses in Madagascar leave not according to a predetermined timetable, but when
the bus is full. The situation triggers the event. Not only does this make economic
sense, but it is also the time that most passengers have chosen to leave.
Consequently, in Madagascar stocks are not replenished until shelves are empty,
filling stations order gas only when they run dry, and hordes of would-be
passengers at the airport find that, in spite of their tickets, in reality everybody is
wait-listed. The actual assignation of seats takes place between the opening of the
check-in desk and the (eventual) departure of the plane.

This table summarizes peculiar features of different time-oriented cultures:

Linear Time Flexible Time Cyclical Time

Views time as an entity to Views time as fluid and Views time as circular and
be saved, spent, or wasted flexible repetitive
Completes tasks Works on multiple tasks Makes decisions and
sequentially simultaneously completes tasks over a long
period of contemplation and
reflection
Focuses on the task to be Focuses on and nurtures Focuses on the long term in
completed within a certain the relationships tasks and relationships
time frame represented by the tasks
Separates work from Views work, family, and Sees connections and
family and social life social life as one interrelatedness in people
and events
Seeks to control time by Reacts as the day’s events Believes that life controls
maintaining a rigid evolve time
appointment schedule
Focuses on the future Focuses on the present Focuses on the past
Cultures such as Anglo- Southern Europeans, African cultures, China,
Saxon, Germanic, and Mediterranean-bordering Japan, Korea, Native
Scandinavian. Countries cultures (Italy, Spain, Americans including Inuits
such as Great Britain, the Portugal, Greece, Arabia,
United States, Switzerland, Turkey), Mongolia, the
Germany, the Netherlands, Philippines, and South
Austria, and the American cultures
Scandinavian countries

(adapted from: Victor, 1992, p. 234 as presented by Dahl)

Conclusion
 Communication is more than the exchange of words. It is cultural; it is interactive.
It draws on how we learned to speak and give non-verbal cues (LeBaron, 2003).
As today’s workplace rapidly changes as the business environment expands to
include various geographic locations and numerous cultures, learning to
communicate and transact business across cultural boundaries is paramount.
Hall’s concepts of high-context versus low-context cultures and monochronic and
polychronic time orientation are easily observed and very useful. Although the lack of
empirical data makes the monochronic/polychronic concept more difficult to apply in
research, these concepts can help leaders and organizations, preparing to cross
cultural
boundaries, better understand those with whom they desire to communicate and
conduct
business.

Conducting Business in Linear, Flexible, Cyclic(al) Cultures:

Guidelines

Where does that leave us? How do we communicate or conduct business with
people who measure time differently?
Because business demands a certain synchronization of schedules and goals, most
cultures will allow the linear-oriented concept of time to dominate to some extent.
But your understanding that their underlying beliefs about the “best” use of time
are radically different will allow you to communicate with more sensitivity. The
following guidelines should help.
When communicating and conducting business in linear cultures:
• Respect schedules. Be prompt for business appointments and understand that you
will have a brief period to make your point. Most businesspeople from linear
cultures schedule their days in 15-30 minute increments.
• Focus on the meeting. Don’t answer your cell phone or perform any other task.
Remember that people from linear cultures expect your full attention and interpret
multitasking as disrespectful.
• Target the short term. Linear businesspeople expect data and analysis that address
immediate or near-future gains and issues.

When communicating and conducting business in flexible cultures:

• Depersonalize the issue. Don’t interpret lateness as disrespect of you or lack of
commitment to the business goal. Recognize that business objectives may take the
back seat to familial or relational concerns.
• Provide a wider window of time for the appointment. Building flexibility into your
schedule will go a long way to reducing common irritation—“I’ll wait in your
office from 11:00 to 11:30” or “I’ll be in my hotel room from 9:00 to 10:00 and
will wait for your call.”
• Clarify expectations. It’s becoming increasingly acceptable to ask: “Is that 12:00
American time or Mexican time?” to determine the actual intended start time of a
meeting or social event.
• Avoid strict deadlines whenever possible by adding some wiggle room. State, “The
delivery date is between Wednesday and Friday.” or “The contract needs to be
finalized by the second quarter of 2003.”

When communicating and conducting business in cyclical cultures:

• Be punctual. Be on time for your appointment, understanding that lateness is a
violation of form and will be interpreted as impolite and disrespectful.
• Maximize “face” time. Allow time to build a relationship and remember that face-
to-face interaction is preferable to electronic or written communication.
• Be patient. Understand that cyclical cultures process information slowly and should
not be hurried. Their logic may not be yours; they look for connections and pay a
great deal of attention to atmosphere and intuition
• Check comfort level. Remember that because many cyclical cultures communicate
indirectly, nonverbal behavior may provide much-needed information. Use
culturally-sensitive perception statements or questions to check comfort level:
“From your tired facial expression, I can see that you need me to slow down. Am I
reading you correctly?”

Cultures differ not only in their attitude to time, but also in their time
orientation.

This mini-lecture examines how different cultures perceive and manage time
and how this affects international project/programme purpose activities.
Read the lecture and do the follow-up exercises.

The use of time.

Time is a fundamental aspect of human experience. Different cultures, however,

think about time and use time in very different ways. The pace of life, the
allocation of time, the economy of time, the scheduling of tasks, the metaphors of
time and perceptions of temporal dimensions convey powerful messages about
how a culture functions within itself and with the outside world.

The simple situation of showing up twenty minutes late to a project/programme

purpose meeting, for example, carries little importance in some cultures. In others,
however, punctuality is considered so vital that unannounced lateness can lead to
project/programme purpose deadlock and failure. For example, in International
Dimensions of Organizational Behavior the researcher Nancy Adler cites the case
of an American engineer working in the Middle East. The American was surprised
by his Bahrainian action sponsor/beneficiary’s reaction when he announced that,
due to unforeseen problems, the plant under construction would not be ready to
open until six months after the originally scheduled date. The Bahrainian replied
simply, “We have lived for thousands of years without this plant; we easily can
wait another six months or a year. This is no problem.”

In order to understand such behavioral nuances, cultural orientations to time can be

examined according to three key criteria:

• In terms of degree of focus: cultures gravitate to single-focused or multi-focused

notions of time.

• In terms of expectations of punctuality and urgency: cultures are fixed or fluid.

• In terms of temporal orientation: cultures prefer to look to the past, the present or
the future.

Variable Cultural Orientations  

From to
Time Single-focused Multi-focused
Fixed Fluid
  
Past…           to  Present… to Future
 
Single-focus cultures: Linearity.

The first set of criteria for evaluating a culture’s orientation to time is its degree of
focus.

 Single-focus cultures concentrate on one task or issue at a time and are committed
to developing and respecting schedules and set deadlines.

Single-focus cultures are less concerned about the relationship through which a
task will completed than defining and completing the task itself.  Plans and
schedules tend to be detailed, followed quite strictly and rarely changed.  Work-
flow is organized according to the step-by-step performance of tasks. Meetings
tend to be highly focused, with a set agenda and a time frame for each item. 

      Multi-focus cultures: Multiple activities.

In multi-focus cultures, the sequential ordering of tasks is uncommon.  Instead,

such cultures prefer to involve various people at the same time within a framework
of multiple engagements and simultaneous transactions.

As such, multi-focus cultures are very flexible.  They consider reality to be more

important than man-made appointments and schedules, sometimes ignoring
precise time commitments.  Moreover, the best investment of time is the
completion of a human transaction, and multi-active people do not like to leave
conversations unfinished.

Multi-focused cultures are adept at pursuing simultaneous tasks and building

enduring relationships.  They often consider focused, linear task completion and
meeting deadlines unconvincing, arbitrary and unnecessarily inflexible.  They
prefer to complete tasks through the strength of relationships rather than with
detailed plans.  When important tasks or relationship issues arise unexpectedly, a
multi-focus person usually attends to matters immediately.

     Comparison of single-focus and multi-focus time.

Single-focus culture Multi-focus culture

Linear sequencing of actions. Several things done at once.

   

Task-centered. Relationship-centered.
    

Plans followed. Plans changed regularly.

   

No interruption of Commitments may be

commitments, regardless of reconsidered relative to
circumstances circumstances.

Single-focus values characterize the way cultures of predominantly Northern

European heritage function, including the United States.  Fully industrialized Asian
cultures have generally adopted a single-focus approach to time. 

Latin European, Latin American, Middle Eastern and some less industrialized
Southeast Asian cultures are predominantly multi-focused.

    Fixed time cultures: Punctuality and urgency.

The second set of criteria for evaluating a culture’s orientation to time is its sense
of punctuality and urgency.

Fixed time cultures are characterized by punctuality and a sense of urgency.  Time

is valued highly: meetings are expected to start on time, and schedules and
deadlines are taken literally.  Time is a commodity to be invested and managed
with care.
As such, time management is an explicitly defined skill that is applied in both
professional and personal life.  Since they consider time a valuable commodity,
fixed cultures try to save time in as many ways as possible, or, more precisely, to
allocate time in as productive as way as possible. 
For example, an manager in Boston, Massachusetts recently founded a
organization that provides Internet-based time billing and travel expense
applications designed to ease administrative burdens of filling out time sheets and
recording expenses manually for independent professionals such as
freelancers.  Such solutions are particularly attractive in fixed cultures because they
allow an individual to use time more efficiently: with the time saved by
simplifying the billing process, independent professionals who use this service
now have more hours available each week to dedicate to income-generating tasks
rather than administrative ones.
 This budgeting of time implies that there is always something to do in fixed
cultures.  For this reason, speed of action is also valued.  It is preferable in fixed
cultures to achieve a task in less time, because the time saved can be attributed to
other tasks, including leisure. 
Fixed cultures perceive that time passes quickly and reason in short units.  When
an individual from a fixed culture uses the adverb “soon”, for example, he is more
likely thinking in terms of minutes, hours and days, rather than long units such as
months and years. 

    Fluid cultures: Patience and flexibility.

In cultures with a fluid time orientation, punctuality and urgency are defined in less
rigid terms.
Meetings are scheduled, but lateness is not considered irresponsible, and keeping
someone waiting or canceling at the last minute carry little or no negative symbolic
significance.
Schedules are established, but delays are expected, and it is understood that
deadlines and other temporal commitments cannot always be respected. 

In other words, time is perceived to be an organic, flowing process.  Instead of

budgeting time, using time or dividing time into fixed categories, people in fluid
cultures pass time in natural terms.  Nature guides temporal perception through the
example of the agricultural seasons: a time for sowing, a time for reaping and a
time for rest. 

The agricultural seasons are prolonged periods that last several months, with
annual cycles.  The urgency that industrial “seasons” impose – measured in
minutes, hours and days – carries significantly less meaning in fluid cultures.

This approach to time is more accepting of unforeseen circumstances and

intrusions of personal life into the professional sphere.  As in nature, events
generally follow certain patterns and cycles, but anomalies are not only tolerated,
but even welcomed, allowing the discovery of new knowledge and understanding
that are beneficial for the project or relationship.

    Comparison of fixed and fluid time : 

Fixed Culture Fluid Culture

Time is valuable commodity to be Time is an organic, flowing process
budgeted, efficiency means more that follows the prolonged cycles of
time for other things. the agricultural seasons.

 Meetings expected to begin on Meetings begin when people are

time. ready.

Schedules, deadlines followed Schedules, deadlines adapted to

precisely.
   Tasks broken down into short- circumstances.
term assignments and milestones.
Projects advance according to the
Time passes in minutes, hours and time needed.  Delays tolerated.
days.
Time passes in months and years.

Full industrialization is not necessarily a sign of a culture’s fundamental

acceptance of fixed time values.  As such, Latin European, Latin American, Asian
and Middle Eastern cultures are, to varying degrees, industrial powers, but their
respective cultural orientations to time are predominantly fluid.

Northern European societies embrace fixed time values, although precision and
punctuality are more important than speed.  Other cultures of predominantly
Northern European heritage – especially the United States – also have a fixed view
of time, although saving time and urgency are more important than punctuality as
an end to its own. 

      Past-, present- and future orientation.

Finally, the third set of criteria for evaluating a culture’s understanding of time is
its orientation to the past, present or future.

Past-oriented cultures

In past-oriented cultures, the past is always the context for evaluating the
present.  High value is placed on nurturing a collective memory and on respecting
established traditions.  Strong family traditions and ancestor worship reinforce this
effort on an individual level.  Plans and ideas follow traditional patterns of the
thinking and tend to have long time frames if they introduce relatively significant
change.  Precedent guides decision-making, organizing and controlling. Staff are
hired according to well-established criteria, including loyalty and adherence to
accepted norms, policies and procedures.  Leaders are expected to carry the vision
of the past into the future, and change is not valued for its own sake. 

Present-oriented cultures

Present-oriented cultures turn to the current situation for guidance.  As such, short-
term goals and quick results are preferred.  Organizations in such cultures will
formulate short-term plans, divide and coordinate resources based on present
demands and select and train employees to meet current goals. 

Future-oriented cultures
 Future-oriented cultures spend the present planning for tomorrow.  In order to
achieve long-term results, future-oriented cultures are willing to
sacrifice short-term gains.  Organizations in such cultures will divide
and coordinate work and resources to meet these long-range goals and
projections. Recruitment and professional development will be directed
at needs anticipate far beyond the immediate circumstances.

      Comparison of past-, present- and future-oriented cultures:

Past-oriented culture Present-oriented Future-oriented  cultur
culture e
Change and action Change and action Change and action seen
evaluated according to evaluated according to as investment for future
tradition, history and short-term benefits. benefits. 
precedent.

 Cultures with long collective memories are inevitably drawn to their past glories
and accomplishments.  What worked yesterday, works today.

 Societies of recent creation, or for which past memories are bitter, tend to focus on
the present and short-term future.  The long-term future is considered risky,
because there are too many unforeseen variables. 

 A culture, which looks to the future, is necessarily more patient, foregoing short-
term benefits and accepting sacrifices today in exchange for growth and stability
tomorrow, assuming the forecasts made today are reliable.

   Mixed perceptions of time.

Industrialization and the realities of modern life mean that most cultures have
more than one temporal direction, although one orientation is often
dominant. 

  Asian cultures look to the past and the future at the same time.  In addition to
respecting age-old traditions and ancestors, these societies emphasize the goals and
achievements of the past when considering the present and future.  However, they
will also give considerable thought to long-term plans.   Asian annual reports, for
example, explain a organization’s history and philosophy, but also lay out
project/programme purpose plans that may stretch out 100 or 250 years into the
future.  These societies function reason according to a temporal continuum that
reaches from long in the past into long in the future.

 Pragmatic and disinterested in what happened yesterday, American culture is

primarily oriented towards the present and short-term future.  An American annual
report generally states only the activity for the past year.  Future goals are limited
to the next five years, primarily because market conditions can change so radically
within five years.  American project/programme purpose seizes opportunities and
reacts to demand and so it must stay vigilant in the present and near-term future.

   European cultures display all three tendencies.  Their long histories mean that
organizations often have both organizational and national traditions to be honored
and to learn from.  At the same time, privatization and globalization place pressure
on European organizations to be more reactive in the short-term.  Yet, Europeans’
historical perspectives often help them to be more patient than Americans.  And,
due in part to the complexity of labor legislation, project/programme purpose plans
need to take into consideration the long-term impact of the proposed strategies.

 Time orientations in South American cultures are similar to those in Europe,

although future orientation is used perhaps used to postpone difficult decisions
more often than elsewhere in the world. 

The Middle East is also similar to Europe in temporal orientation, although the
cultural attraction to the past is particularly strong in a region with such an
illustrious past.  Future orientation can be seen in the efforts of certain countries in
the region to prepare for a post-petroleum economy.  

 
Time in Cross-Cultural Communication

Discuss the following points.

1. What is your attitude to time? Why do you value it? Often after a visit or a
meeting people get the feeling that their time was wasted. In which cases
have you experienced the same? Give your comments.
2. How important are plans, schedules and punctuality for you? Can you easily
do many things at the same time or do you prefer focusing on one thing at a
time? Which way of studying (e.g. revising before an exam) do you consider
more efficient: to work on small portions at regular intervals or to do
everything overnight? Why?

The drawing below represents a shopkeeper standing behind the counter in

his shop. Imagine eight patrons ready to check out. Using circles to represent
them, draw each patron in the diagram showing how they should arrange
themselves in front of the counter.

- On what basis did you decide to put the people where you did?

For a drawing of how people from a different culture would stand in this
situation, read the following text.
 Lining up and not lining up are culturally determined behaviors

Lining up in a single line, or queuing, is what most US-Americans choose when

deciding what would be most efficient (and fair) when they draw their ideal way to
arrange themselves and others to obtain service. However, doing some common
activities overseas like shopping or using public transportation can be a shock in
some countries where there is, for the novice, no obvious and easily discernable
order, and much pushing, shouting, and shoving is going on. Perhaps the closest
analogy might be open "concert" seating, which usually means that all your ticket
gets you is admission, but obtaining a good seat is up to you. Most US-Americans
will feel quite at home in England and much of Europe, where queuing is seen as
good breeding and where anyone trying to "cut" will be severely chastised. However,
in much of the rest of the world, from buying stamps in a rural post office in Uganda
to trying to use the local bus in New Delhi, such activities can be both an adventure
and a trial.

Many daily transactions in much of the world outside of Euro-American countries are
governed more on the basis of social rules and personal interaction than upon ideals
of commercial efficiency and its "time is money" ethos. Things are often slower, less
regularized, time-consuming, and, yes, frustrating for US-Americans if they are
unable to be flexible and congenial in the process. Again, knowing the local customs
regarding "lining up" (especially if the locals are likely not to do so) is extremely
useful information and can lessen "culture shock" if you are mentally prepared. Even
more important might be understanding why this is the custom and trying to see how
this trait is related to the way people conceive of time, space, and communication.

Vocabulary

patron — клієнт; відвідувач; постійний покупець; замовник

to check out — підрахувати вартість і вибити чек; сплатити за рахунком

(в готелі, крамниці)

novice — новачок, недосвідчена людина

discernable — помітний; чітко виражений

shove — штовхати; відштовхувати

chastise — карати; критикувати; засуджувати

ethos — характер; дух; ідеал; звичаї

conceive (of) — сприймати, розуміти; вважати

Focus on cultural differences

Each culture has its own way to treat time. Taking our own time system for granted
and projecting it onto other cultures can prevent us from seeing hidden messages in
the foreign time system and interpreting them properly. Treatment of time can also
be a powerful form of revealing your attitude towards others.

A popular rationalistic structural approach distinguishes between monochronic (M)

and polychronic (P) cultures; the former emphasizes doing one thing at a time
while the latter – many things at the same time. In British and American M-
cultures time is strictly segmented; distancing manifests itself in the existence of
zones similar to those in space. Communication is also compartmentalized and
regulated as time is a kind of property to be protected (cf. time is money). This
reglamentation is revealed, e.g. in the choice of topics for conversation, and raising
professional issues (talking shop) at a private family gathering or discussing
personal matters at a business meeting would be equally inappropriate. Schedules
should be kept and tardiness is unforgivable. Coming 10 minutes late for an
appointment demands a serious excuse or a telephone call. People in P-cultures are
less preoccupied with schedules and punctuality, and their plans are flexible; they
are less formal and pragmatic as the value of time is often determined by human
relations.

By answering the following questions identify to which time-oriented culture you

belong (monochronic/polychronic). Discuss your answers in small groups.

• Do you often feel that your life is aimless, with no definite purpose?

• Do you ever have trouble organising the things you have to do?

• Do you have a daily routine that you follow?

• Do you spend time thinking about what your future might be like?

• Once you’ve started an activity, do you persist at it until you’ve completed it?

A student is going to take a course of lectures in a foreign country. Is it

essential for him/her to identify themselves as polychronic vs monochronic
individuals? Read the text and make a list of tips to help a student adapt in a
foreign environment.
For study abroad students to avoid constant frustration, it is essential for them to
have some idea about how a culture is likely to view time. If what you define as
"chronic lateness" is perceived in the host culture as "reasonably on time," it is
clear that you will need to adjust your expectations of how long things will take to
accomplish. It would also be advisable that you prepare to ease up a bit, if you are
a monochronic type, on obsessing over maintaining strict schedules in cultures
with a more relaxed approach towards timetables and punctuality. On the other
hand, you might be a polychronic person even though you have grown up in US-
American culture where the majority is not. In that case, going to, say, Argentina
or Mexico would be relatively easy and suit your personal preferences, while going
to Germany, France, or England might be somewhat more of a challenge.

Obviously, no culture is exclusively one way or the other in time preferences, but
understanding the general approach that local people will take towards
management of time will help in reducing frustration in everyday life. Time is
going to have a fairly immediate impact upon every study abroad student,
including how classes are scheduled, and when and how long they meet; how long
(and when) stores will be open for business; when meals are scheduled; office
hours of governmental and administrative offices; local transportation schedules,
and hundreds of other common circumstances.

Vocabulary

avoid constant frustration – уникати постійного розчарування

to ease up — послабити; зменшити; вповільнити

be obsessed over (with) sth. - захоплюватись чим-н.; бути одержимим чим-н.

A Peace Corps volunteer is talking about his experience in West Africa. In

pairs discuss the answers to the questions.

- What is the role of schedules in West Africa?

- What is the true meaning of the phrase “In’shallah”?

- Why is the weather the foremost obstacle in Guinea?

- How do people deal with transportation problems?

- What has communication with people from another culture taught the author?

- Identify the cultural type (monochronic/polychronic) of Guineans.

It had been a challenge to accept the fact that meetings or scheduled events never
start "on time" in West Africa. If a meeting is set for 8 o'clock, people begin
arriving around 9 o'clock and the meeting actually starts at 10 o'clock. After this
happened several times, I asked my friend if all Guineans were habitually late.
Surprised, she told me, "We Guineans aren't late. You Americans are just early!" I
had been acting like a typical American by arriving 15 minutes before a scheduled
appointment, whereas I should have been arriving an hour after the scheduled time,
which is the Guinean way.

In the beginning, I failed to notice the true meaning of the phrase "In'shallah" (God
willing) which, people add to the end of certain sentences. For instance, someone
might say, "See you at 4 o'clock, In'shallah (God willing)!" I now interpret this as,
"I'll try to be there at 4 o'clock, but if something comes up, I may arrive a bit later
than that." These words give people permission to come later than the scheduled
time, so that they'll be able to greet people along the way and take care of whatever
other problems may arise.

And in Guinea, many other interruptions can and WILL arise! The first and
foremost obstacle is the weather. In the rainy season, it faithfully pours down every
day, leaving knee-deep puddles of muddy water that form small lakes in the dirt
roads. Plans are often delayed until the rain lets up a bit. In the dry season, the
sun's hot rays beat down and force people to take cover in the relatively cool shade
of their homes between noon and 3 p.m. So it is common knowledge that any
meeting scheduled during mid-day will have few attendees.

Difficulties with transportation also cause delays. Few Guineans own personal
vehicles so most people use public transportation, such as taxis, vans, buses,
motorcycles, and dump trucks. There are no bus schedules or set times for
departures and arrivals. Vehicles simply leave when they are full.

In the U.S., we'd consider a typical car "full" when it contains five people. But in
Guinea, as many as eight people plus a few children will pile into a car. Then about
five people will ride on the roof of the car, holding onto the luggage rack. And
that's not all! During each trip, a breakdown or an accident of some sort can be
quite normal, even expected. When this happens, all of the passengers get out.
Some will push the vehicle as others cut off tree branches or search for rubber
bands and tin cans that may be used to repair the car. (It's amazing what Guineans
can fix without any tools or special parts!) Often, these repair jobs can take up to
five hours or more, but people rarely complain. They simply eat mangoes that they
pick off the trees, talk to one another, and sleep along the side of the road.

When I was in the United States, I never thought twice about how easy it was to
leave my house 15 minutes before work and arrive on time almost every day. I
remember getting upset when I had to wait in traffic for an extra half-hour because
of a car accident …or becoming extremely upset when I got a flat tire, even though
AAA (Emergency Road Service) would come to repair it within 45 minutes. Now,
I've learned to be very patient. I've also become more tolerant. I realize that I don't
have control over certain things, and that sometimes I must accept my fate and not
get upset about unexpected events and problems. Also, instead of letting
misunderstandings complicate a situation, I take the extra effort to talk about it
until all the confusion is cleared up. My Peace Corps experience has taught me that
a problem is only as big as you make it.