G.M. Osiakwan et al.

Journal of African Earth Sciences 184 (2021) 104371

similar studies (Table 2). common sources for variables with excellent direct associations (Bod­
The TDS suggests that the groundwater systems in the Central Region rud-Doza et al., 2019). Pearson’s correlation matrix of the sampled
showed great variability of less mineralized to highly mineralized groundwater parameters is presented in Table 3. From the matrix, ob­
groundwater (Papazotos et al., 2019). Based on the TDS categorization servations are that a very strong positive correlation (r > 0.7) occurred
by Freeze and Cherry (1979), about 85.5% and 12.5% of the ground­ between TDS or EC with other hydrogeochemical parameters such as
water are fresh and brackish. High TDS were generally observed along Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl− and SO42− . The correlation between TDS and Cl−
the coast, however, there were few cases where high TDS were observed was significantly positive and strong (r = 0.99). This implies that Cl− is a
inland. A similar trend was reported by Ganyaglo et al. (2017) although, major contributor to the high TDS (Bodrud-Doza et al., 2019). The
TDS values in the study area comparatively were lower. Similar studies significantly positive correlations between Na+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ suggest
in coastal aquifers in other countries suggest high TDS with proximity to that, to some extent, these ions are derived from the same source. The
the coast (Abu-alnaeem et al., 2018; Kammoun et al., 2021; Ntanga­ correlations between HCO3− and TDS, EC, Cl− , SO42− , Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+
nedzeni et al., 2018; Rajmohan et al., 2021; Rakib et al., 2020; Tiwari and Mn were also positive and significant. The strongly correlated Cl−
et al., 2019). and Na+ (r = 0.941) confirm a common source. Mg2+ correlated posi­
Na+ and Cl− were the dominant ions with high concentrations. The tively with Ca2+ (r = 0.89), signifying that silicate weathering could be a
occurrence of Na+ and Cl− in the groundwater sampled may be from the common source for Mg2+ and Ca2+ in the groundwater (Walraevens
weathering of rock-forming minerals such as sodium plagioclase and et al., 2018). The SO42− concentrations correlated strongly with Ca2+
halite, effect of seawater and to some extent sewage inputs (Garrels, and Mg2+ (r > 0.8), which may suggest some linkage with sulphate
1975; Kim, 2002). Ca2+ and HCO3− were the next dominant cation and minerals like gypsum. Also, SO42− correlated with Na+, which may
anion respectively. Ca2+ in groundwater may be derived from carbon­ suggest the probable dissolution of evaporate minerals and cation ex­
ate, silicate and sulphate minerals (Gaillardet et al., 1999; Kim, 2002; change processes. NO3− ions showed no correlation with TDS and EC,
Porowski et al., 2019) while the probable source of the HCO3− could be indicating their anthropogenic source and little effect on the TDS con­
carbonate minerals or dissolution of CO2 in the soil zone. Mg2+ and K+ centration (Zhang et al., 2020).
were generally low except in isolated areas where high concentrations
were recorded. 5.3. PCA and CA
Normally, concentrations of SO42− ions in groundwater in areas of
granite rock are low (Chapman and Kimstash, 1996). The source of Principal component analysis was employed using the hydro-
SO42− ions in natural unpolluted groundwaters may be oceanic aerosols chemical data to explore the relation between the sample locations,
and sulphur leachate compounds, such as sulphate minerals like gypsum water quality parameters and the groups observed from piper diagram.
and sulphite minerals. A very low percentage of boreholes sampled The factors scores and loading of the PCs are presented in Table 4.
recorded high sulphate ion concentrations, suggesting a likely combined Overall, two principal components were extracted which explained
source from sulphate minerals and oceanic aerosols. Concentrations of
NO3− ions exceeding 5 mg/L are related to human and animal waste
Table 4
pollution or fertilizer run-off (Chapman and Kimstash, 1996; Younie
Principal component analysis of physico-chemical parameters.
et al., 1996). On average, the NO3− ion concentration in the sampled
Parameters Principal Components
boreholes was very low in agreement with values reported by Ganyaglo
et al. (2017), however, some few boreholes (4.2%) NO3− ions exceeded 1 2
5 mg/L. Therefore, a few boreholes may be affected by anthropogenic pH 0.28 ¡0.68
activities, accounting for the higher levels of NO3− ions in the EC 0.99 0.03
groundwater. TDS 0.99 0.03
Cl− 0.92 0.22
In all, the dominance of the major cation concentrations vary in the
SO42− 0.87 − 0.1
order of Na+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+ while the major anions vary in the HCO3− 0.5 ¡0.49
order of Cl− > HCO3− > SO42− > NO3− . The associations between these NO3− − 0.04 0.69
parameters and their possible sources were discussed in subsequent Na+ 0.89 0.27
sections. K+ 0.69 0.28
Ca2+ 0.91 − 0.13
Mg2+ 0.92 − 0.03
5.2. Correlation analysis Eigenvalues 6.82 1.4
Explained Variance (%) 62.33 12.82
Generally, correlation analysis can be used to test the association Cumulative Explained Variance (%) 62.33 75.15
between two variables, which gives significant information about

Table 3
Pearson correlation rank plot of water chemistry parameters.
Variables pH EC TDS Cl− SO42- HCO3− NO3− Na+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2+ Fe Mn

pH 1
EC 0.16 1
TDS 0.16 1.00 1
Cl− 0.14 0.99 0.99 1
SO42- 0.12 0.87 0.87 0.81 1
HCO3− 0.26 0.59 0.59 0.50 0.50 1
NO3− − 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.01 − 0.05 0.00 1
Na+ 0.12 0.92 0.92 0.93 0.71 0.53 0.06 1
K+ − 0.02 0.47 0.47 0.51 0.27 0.22 0.01 0.34 1
Ca2+ 0.18 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.88 0.54 − 0.04 0.76 0.56 1
Mg2+ 0.15 0.91 0.91 0.89 0.86 0.51 − 0.04 0.72 0.44 0.89 1
Fe − 0.06 0.14 0.14 0.13 0.15 − 0.01 − 0.07 0.12 0.02 0.14 0.17 1
Mn 0.06 0.38 0.38 0.37 0.34 0.24 0.03 0.33 0.14 0.31 0.47 0.29 1

Values in bold are >0.5 with a significance level alpha = 0.05.