Question a)

Mangrove ecosystem

The term mangrove is used to refer to the tidally influenced wetland located within the

intertidal zone of the tropical and subtropical latitudes. It also designates the marine tidal forests

comprised of trees, ferns, shrubs, epiphytes, and palms (Kairo et al., 2020). The mangrove

ecosystems are described as heterogeneous habitats with unusual variety of plants and animals

which have high adaptability to the environmental factors found in this ecosystem with high

salinity, frequently inundated with soft-bottomed anaerobic mud. However, not all mangroves

are solely obligated to survive in saline intertidal regions. Those plants which are confined to the

mangrove are referred to as true mangroves while those that can exist in other ecosystems are

called referred to as mangrove associates. There are about 54-75 species of true mangroves

which are found exclusively in the intertidal zones of coastal regions (Khairnar, Solanki, &

Junwei, 2010). They are isolated in terms of taxonomy from their terrestrial counterparts.

Mangrove ecosystems are affected in terms of their distributions by environmental factors such

as salinity, tidal fluctuations, climate, and wave energy and sediment. Most of the threatened and

endangered species are true mangrove forests which give essential habitat that ensures there is

diverse marine and terrestrial flora and fauna. There is high diversity of mangroves with various

mangrove ecosystems which makes it hard to develop general guidelines for the management

and conservation of mangroves due to the uniqueness of each system.

Mangrove ecosystems on the coastal lines provide protection to lives and property during

natural hazards like storm surges, cyclones, and erosion. They also have economic importance.

They are feeding, breeding, and nursery grounds for various marine and estuarine organisms.
 Mangroves have been declining at a critical rate of 0.66-1 percent per year. One of the

biggest threat to the marine ecosystem is global warming which is likely to lead to rise in the

global sea affecting the marine habitats in the low-lying regions. Mangrove ecosystems are also

threatened by climatic changes and changes in tides which have direct influence on the systems

(Kairo et al., 2020). Mangroves tend to keep pace with the rising sea level. They do so through

continuous sedimentation enriching the ambient environment with organic matter. The rise in sea

level will lead to extension of the supralittoral and intertidal zones farther inland leading to the

destruction of the existing mangroves and the associated biota which form the mangrove

ecosystem.

Another threat is changes in salinity which may lead to genetic erosion and changes in

species composition. The changes may lead to a total assemblage of species. Anthropogenic

threats include, deforestation through tree felling for wood products and fuel wood, grazing,

reclamation for aquaculture and agriculture, industrialization, and urban development. Climate

changes coupled with anthropogenic pressures with poor management practices are likely to

decrease productivity and also the loss of mangrove dependent biodiversity (Khairnar, Solanki,

& Junwei, 2010). The result of that is adverse impact on ecological and socioeconomic benefits.

The most effective remedy is afforestation since it will also reduce global warming which

is a major threat by absorbing up to four times more carbon dioxide by area than terrestrial

forests in the uplands. Another remedy is to pass legislations including policies and laws to

protect the mangrove ecosystem. Monitoring and surveying on land and aerial surveillance

(Kairo et al., 2020). Protection by developing conservation reserves and parks.

Estuaries Ecosystem

An estuary is a semi-enclosed body of water where fresh water from land by river meets

and mixes with salt water from the ocean or sea. The ocean and land contribute to form estuaries

ecosystem. Estuaries ecosystem is unique whereby animals and plants in the ecosystem get

adapted to the unique environment. The primary feature of an estuarine ecosystem is the

instability of an estuary because of the ebb and flood of the tides. Animal and plant wastes are

washed away, sediment is shifted, and then salt and fresh water mix (Dzoga, Simatele, & Munga,

2018). There is biodiversity of habitats which are enclosed in estuaries and they support a lot of

diverse species. They are highly productive and rich in nutrients and organic matter. The margins

of the estuaries there are food webs with essential producers such as eelgrass, algae, ruches, and

also mangroves.

Estuaries ecosystems are the preferred site for human settlement which possess a big

threat to the ecosystem. Estuaries get the final impact of human activities and therefore the use of

the surrounding land and the rivers draining into them have a direct impact on the ecosystem

indirect threats are mostly associated with erosion which increase siltation affecting animal and

plant communities. Increased runoff as a result of poor urban management and deforestation

accelerates turbidity of the water, increase sedimentation and spread of clay, mud, and silts

(Ongore et al., 2013). The sediments trap pollutants such as petroleum by-products, fertilizer,

heavy metals, and pesticides which have effect on animals and plants in the ecosystem.

Fertilizer, for instance, speeds up the process of organic decomposition leading to the depletion

of oxygen to dangerous levels.

The remedy for the threats is to enact laws and regulations that limit human activities

around the estuary ecosystems and on rivers. Rehabilitate the systems. Afforestation and
reduction of pollutants by banning the release of raw sewage and phasing indiscriminate use of

chemical fertilizers and pesticides (Dzoga, Simatele, & Munga, 2018).

Coral Reef Ecosystem

Coral reef ecosystems are one of the most biologically diverse ecosystems on the planet

with the tropical rain forests being their only rival. Corals are made up of thin layers or plates of

calcium carbonate which is secreted over a long time by many soft bodied animals known as

coral polyps. The polyp have a symbiotic relationship with the host zooxanthellae which

provides the coral with its color. Through the process of photosynthesis, the zooxanthellae takes

in carbon dioxide and gives oxygen and other essential nutrients which are used by polyp

(Samoilys et al., 2013)). The hard corals are the backbone of coral reef ecosystem because they

provide a three-dimensional structure. The structure provide hiding places and habitat for

thousands of species of sea turtles, fish, invertebrates such as sea stars, anemones, clams,

sponges, and shrimp, and many more marine animals. All the species play unique roles in the

coral reef ecosystem which keeps it functioning and balanced. Millions of people rely on the

coral reef ecosystems for income and food (McClanahan, 2004). They are the first line of

defense against the strong storms in the tropics.

Coral reef ecosystems face many threats to their survival. Uncontrolled and excessive

fishing in these ecosystems have reduced biodiversity. Invasive species and pollution threaten

coral reefs in populated areas. Climate change leading to raising ocean temperatures and ocean

acidification pose threats to coral reefs (Samoilys et al., 2013)). The threats may cause stress to

the corals causing coral bleaching and death.

 Remedies to the threats include, careful management of human activities from the source

to the coral reefs. There should be controlled fishing and minimization of pollution through

legislation. Proper disposal of industrial and agricultural wastes.

Lagoons ecosystems

A lagoon is a shallow body of water which is protected from large body of water (ocean)

by barrier islands, coral reef, or sandbars. Coastal lagoons are lagoons that are sheltered by

barrier islands or sandbars. They form along coastal plains- gently slopping or flat landscapes

(Solidoro et al., 2010). They are found in areas with low tidal ranges. They are highly productive

providing various habitats such as mangroves, marshes, and sea-grasses. They also provide

habitat for many species of fish and shellfish. The beds influence the stability and shape of the

shoreline, regulate oxygen, and filter suspended matter. They are favorable habitat for primary

producers such as aquatic plants and phytoplankton because of their relatively low flushing rates.

The main threat to lagoon ecosystems is climate change with temperature, storminess, sea

level, and precipitation having direct impact while ocean acidification having indirect impact.

Changes in temperature have a direct influence on shallow, slow-moving water bodies like in the

coastal lagoons. Water temperature influence dissolve oxygen concentration and the physiology

of lagoon organisms and the patterns of migration. This will lead to migration of species as they

live in ecosystems with their threshold of thermal tolerance and therefore losing biodiversity

(Solidoro et al., 2010). Pollution is also a major threat to the lagoon ecosystem especially with

oil spillage and accumulation of plastics in the lagoons leading to deaths of many species.

Human activities such as human settlement, industrialization, excessive fishing, and agriculture

around the lagoons threaten their existence.

 Remedies for the threats include legislation to mitigate pollution by enacting laws that

prohibit plastic use. Measures to reduce climate change by afforestation, reduction of the

emission of greenhouse gases (Solidoro et al., 2010). Minimization of human activities within

the lagoon ecosystem.

Intertidal zones ecosystem

An intertidal zone ecosystem is found on marine shorelines where many organisms that

live on the shore survive the changes between high and low tides. Intertidal zones are extreme

ecosystems due to the constant drastic changes. They are located on marine shorelines which

include sandy beaches and rocky shores. It experiences two states, at one point high tide when it

is submerged once or twice a day in seawater and low tide when it is exposed to the air

(Nordlund et al., 2014)). Organisms that live in the intertidal zones ecosystem form their own

communities across the elevation gradient of the zone. Some organisms live further down the

shore, closer to the low tide line while others live further up the shore where it is closer to the

high tide line. The organisms have high adaptability for them to survive the constant changes in

temperature, strong waves, salinity, and moisture. The intertidal zones ecosystems with the rocky

shorelines are inhabited by snails, crabs, sear stars, algae, and seaweed. Kelps, mussels, and

barnacles are able to survive in the rocky shorelines due to their ability to anchor themselves to

the rocks (Nordlynd et al., 2014). Barnacles are highly adapted because they can hold seawater in

their shells to prevent them from drying during low tides. The ecosystem provides protection

against erosion and prevents waves from reaching buildings.

One of the biggest threats to the intertidal zones ecosystem is humans due to the tide

pools which are popular attractions to tourists. The cumulative impact of human exploration of

the tide pools, taking creatures, and stepping on organisms and their habitat has led decreased
organisms in the areas. Coastal development and industrialization has led to pollution and

runoffs damaging the intertidal zones (Sindorf, Cowburn, & Sluka, 2015). Remedies to the

threats include minimization and regulation of human activities around the ecosystems. Proper

disposal of wastes. Regulations to ensure that untreated industrial waste does not enter the ocean.

Rehabilitation of the intertidal zone ecosystems by removing and cleaning them.

Question b)

Deep sea is defined as water and sea floor area below 200 meters which comprise of 90

percent of biosphere. Sunlight does not penetrate or it is so dim that the environment does not

allow photosynthesis. Life in the deep sea is abundant and highly diverse. Ecosystem services

(ES) are defined as the ecological functions and economic value of ecosystems that contribute to

human well-being (Ottaviani, 2020). The deep sea and the deep marine floor form a complex and

extensive system which is linked with the rest of the planet and they exchange energy, matter,

and biodiversity. It is also important to global biogeochemical cycles.

Some of the goods provided by the deep sea include fish, precious corals which is

important in the jewelry industry, gas, oil, minerals, and substances used in the pharmaceutical

industry.

The services provided by deep sea ecosystems are as a result of the vast size and the long

duration of time in respect to its separation with the earth’s atmosphere. They include, Climate

regulation, water temperature regulation, carbon (IV) oxide transport and storage, and circulation

and regeneration of nutrients in water (Anthony et al., 2009).

Water circulation is one of the most important services provided by deep sea. When cold

(with a mean temperature of 4° C) dense water sink below the photic zone, they are separated
from the atmosphere for about 1000 years. They supply all the planet’s deep ocean areas in the

“global conveyor belt” which is also called the “thermohaline circulation” and then it resurfaces

in regions of upwelling (Thurber et al, 2014). The water that is separated from direct contact with

the atmosphere more than one billion square kilometers which incredibly increases the buffering

capacity of the deep sea for carbon and nutrient cycles. The water circulation is also essential in

other regulating services which are beneficial to other ecosystem services like climate and

weather regulation, nutrient cycling, and carbon dioxide exchange (Anthony et al., 2009).

The deep sea have some of the most important commercial fish species such as the blue

grenadier, Alaska Pollock, Atlantic cod, haddock, European hake, and Greenland halibut. The

ecosystem also has precious corals whose economic value is extremely high. The deep sea have

high amounts of oil. The deep sea also has mineral deposits especially cobalt-rich

ferromanganese, polymetallic nodules, and massive suphides which have high potential to

provide valuable metals (Ottaviani, 2020). There are rare earth elements which exceed those in

land-based reserves. The Indian ocean has high concentration of polymettalic which is also

known as ferromanganese nodules which are spherical mineral concretions with a diameter of 5

to 10 centimeters. They are composed of iron, manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel, molybdenum

(Ottaviani, 2020). They also have traces of rare earth elements like thallium, lithium, and

yttrium.
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