LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION

1. ATOMIC LEVEL
 Building blocks of matter
ANATOMY
 Smallest unit of element
 Physical structure of an organism
 Ana = “apart”, tomy = “to cut” 2. MOLECULAR LEVEL
 Studied mainly by dissecting  Group of atoms
TWO SUBDIVISIONS OF ANATOMY 3. CHEMICAL LEVEL
1. GROSS
 Involves the Atomic and Molecular Levels
 Easily observable
 Large structures 4. CELULLAR LEVEL
 Basic unit of life
2. MICROSCOPIC
 Smallest unit of life
 Cannot be seen by the naked eye
 Very small structures 5. TISSUE LEVEL
 Needs a microscope  Consists of similar types of cells
 Cytology: Cells  Ie. Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, Neural
 Histology: Tissues
6. ORGAN LEVEL
3. MACROSCOPIC  Combination of two or more types of tissues
 Includes viscera (internal or visceral organs) that have the same functions
 Systemic Anatomy: One system at a time
 Regional Anatomy: Regions and relations 7. ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL
between structures  Group of organs that have varying functions

4. DEVELOPMENTAL 8. ORGANISMAL LEVEL

 Study of the structural changes from
fertilization to maturity
 Embryology: Study of the development of
the embryonic stages
PHYSIOLOGY
 Function of the individual parts, systems,
and an organism as a whole
 More dynamic (small processes to larger
complex systems)
 Best studied in living organisms
 Physio = “nature”, Ology = “the study of”
PRINCIPLE OF COMPLEMENTARITY
 Function always reflects structure
 What a structure can do depends on it
specific form
 Anatomy depicts Physiology
 Several organ systems that function
together in order to form one organism
ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW (RUN MRS LIDEC)
1. INTEGUMENTARY
 Forms the external body covering
 Protects deeper tissue from injury
 Synthesizes vitamin D (7 to 9 am)
 Location of Cutaneous Nerve Receptors
(Senses changes in the body)
2. SKELETAL
 Supports and protects body organs
 Site of blood cell formation (Hematopoiesis)
 Provides muscle attachment for movement
 Stores minerals in the form of calcium
 Tendons: Bone to Muscle
 Joints: Bone to Bone
 Cartilage: Rubber-like pudding, elastic
connective tissue
3. MUSCULAR  Eliminates indigestible material
 Allows locomotion  Small Intestine: Contains Villi which aids in
 Maintains posture digestion and absorption of nutrients
 Produces heat needed by the body

4. NERVOUS 10. URINARY

 Fast acting control system  Eliminates nitrogenous waste
 Responds to internal and external change  Maintains acid-base balance
 Activates muscles and glands  Regulation of materials (water, electrolytes)
 Main control system of the body
11. REPRODUCTIVE
5. ENDOCRINE  Production of offspring
 Secretes regulatory hormones
Pituitary Adrenocortitrophic and NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS
Growth Hormone 1. Movement
Pineal Melatonin 2. Responsiveness/Sensitivity/Irritability
Thyroid Growth Hormone and 3. Digestion
Metabolism 4. Metabolism
Thymus Production of T-Cells 5. Excretion
Adrenal Adrenaline (Cortisol and 6. Reproduction
Aldosterone) 7. Growth
Testes Testosterone
Ovary Estrogen and Progesterone SURVIVAL NEEDS
Pancreas Degrades macromolecules 1. NUTRIENTS
 Chemicals needed for energy and cell
6. CARDIOVASCULAR building
 Transports materials in the body via blood  Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Minerals
pumped by the heart
2. OXYGEN
 Oxygen: Utilized in Respiratory (Aerobic: 36
ATP, Anaerobic: 2 ATP)  Required for chemical reactions (Main)
 Carbon Dioxide  Composes 20% of air in the atmosphere
 Nutrients
3. WATER
 Wastes
 60 to 80% of body weight
7. LYMPATHIC  Provides metabolic reaction
 Involves Basophils, Eosinophils, Neutrophils
4. STABLE BODY TEMPERATURE
 Returns fluids to blood vessels
 37 Celsius or 99 Fahrenheit
 Disposes of debris
 Involved in Immunity
5. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE MUST BE
APPROPRIATE
8. RESPIRATORY
 Keeps blood supplied with oxygen
HOMEOSTASIS
 Removes carbon dioxide
 Dynamic state of equilibrium
 Maintained for normal body functioning
9. DIGESTIVE
 IMPORTANCE: Survival
 Breakdowns food
 Disturbance = HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
 Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
COMPONENTS ANATOMICAL POSITION
1. RECEPTORS  Standard position of the body
 Responds to environmental changes via to  Body Erect
stimulus (Change in environment)  Feet Slightly Apart
 Palms Facing Forward
2. AFFERENT  Thumbs Point Away from the Body
 Delivers the information from the receptors
to the control center

3. CONTROL CENTRE
 Gives out the response
 Maintains and analyses information

4. EFFERENT
 Delivers the response from the Control
Centre to the Effector

5. EFFECTOR
 Response to stimulus DIRECTIONAL TERMS
1. SUPERIOR
FEEDBACK MECHANISMS 2. INFERIOR
1. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
 Includes most homeostatic controls 3. ANTERIOR
 Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its 4. POSTERIOR
intensity
5. MEDIAL – Towards the midline
2. POSITIVE FEEDBACK 6. LATERAL – Away from the midline
 Increases original stimulus 7. INTERMEDIATE – Between more medial and
 Only occurs during blot clotting and child lateral structures, In-between (compares 3
birth parts)

ANATOMIC VARIABILITY 8. PROXIMAL – Closer to point of attachment

 Humans vary slightly in both external and
internal anatomy
 Overall 90% of all anatomical structures
match textbook descriptions
• Nerves and Blood Vessels may
be out of place
• Small muscles may be missing
 Extreme anatomical variations are seldom
seen
9. DISTAL – Farther from point of attachment
10. SUPERFICIAL – Towards body surface
(External)
11. DEEP – Away from the body surface
(Internal)
12. CONTRALATERAL – Opposite Side
13. IPSILATERAL – Same Side

THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY EXAMPLES OF USING DIRECTIONAL TERMS

 Special terminologies used to prevent 1. The forehead is SUPERIOR to the nose
misunderstanding 2. The kidneys are INFERIOR to the lungs
 Exact terms are used for Position, Direction, 3. The breastbone is ANTERIOR to the spinal
Regions, and Structures cord
4. The kidneys are POSTERIOR to the liver BODY CAVITY
5. The ears are MEDIAL to the eyes  Any fluid-filled space
6. The arms are LATERAL to the chest
7. The elbow is INTERMEDIATE between the A. DORSAL CAVITY
shoulder and the wrist 1. CRANIAL CAVITY – Houses the brain
8. The femur is PROXIMAL to the tibia 2. SPINAL CAVITY – Houses the spinal cord
9. The fibula is DISTAL to the patella
10. The skin is SUPERFICIAL to the muscle B. VENTRAL CAVITY
11. The dermis is DEEP to the epidermis 1. PELVIC CAVITY – Reproductive organs,
12. The left lung is CONTRALATERAL to the right bladder, rectum
kidney 2. ABDOMINAL CAVITY – Stomach, Liver,
13. The right lung is IPSILATERAL to the right Intestines
kidney 3. THORACIC CAVITY – Lungs, Heart,
Diaphragm
BODY PLANES 4. MEDIASTINUM – Area in thorax that lies
1. SAGITTAL between the lungs
 Aka Median
 Divides body into left and right BODY LANDMARKS
ANTERIOR VIEW
2. MIDSAGITTAL A. AXIAL REGION
 Aka Media 1. Cephalic (Head)
 Cuts through the midline  Frontal
 Divides body into left and right equally  Orbital
 Nasal
 Oral
 Mental

2. Cervical (Neck)

3. Thoracic
 Sternal
 Axillary
 Mammary

4. Abdominal
 Umbilical
3. CORONAL
5. Pelvic
 Aka Frontal
 Divides body into Posterior and Anterior  Inguinal (Groin)
4. TRANSVERSE
6. Pubic (Genital)
 Aka Horizontal or Cross Section
 Divides body into Superior and Inferior
B. APPENDICULAR REGION
1. Upper Limb
5. OBLIQUE
 Acromial
 Divides the body diagonally
 Brachial (Arm)
 Antecubital
  Antebrachial (Forearm)  Digital
 Carpal (Wrist)
3. Lower Limb
2. Manus (Hand)  Femoral
 Pollex  Popliteal
 Palmar  Sural
 Digital  Fibular or Peroneal

3. Lower Limb 4. Pedal (Foot)

 Coxal (Hip)  Calcaneal
 Femoral  Plantar
 Patellar
 Cural BIOCHEMISTRY
 Fibular or Peroneal  The study of chemical composition and
reactions of living matter
4. Pedal (Foot)  All chemicals can be either organic or
 Tarsal (Ankle) inorganic
 Metatarsal
 Digital INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
 Hallux  Do not contain carbon and tend to be small,
single molecules
POSTERIOR VIEW  Water, salts, and many (but not all) acids and
A. AXIAL REGION bases
1. Cephalic
 Otic ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
 Occipital  Contain carbon, are usually large, and
covalently bonded
2. Cervical  Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic
acids
3. Back (Dorsal)
 Scapular TYPES INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
 Vertebral 1. WATER
 Lumbar  Most abundant inorganic compound in the
 Sacral body
 Gluteal  2/3 of the body weight
 Perineal (Between anus and external
genitalia) PROPERTIES OF WATER
✓ High heat capacity
B. APPENDICULAR REGION o It absorbs and releases large amounts of
1. Upper Limb heat before its temperature changes
 Acromial appreciably
 Brachial (Arm) o It prevents sudden changes in body
temperature
 Olecranal
 Antebrachial (Forearm)
✓ Polarity or Solvent Properties
o Water is an excellent solvent
2. Manus (Hand)
o Most important property
 Metacarpal
 o All chemical reactions that occur in the
body depend on water’s solvent
properties
o Forms hydration layers around large
charged molecules (e.g. proteins)
o Body’s major transport medium
 It is the release of the protons that
determines an acid’s effect on the
environment
 HCl H+ + Cl-
 Strong acids: liberate all protons
 Weak acids: ionize incompletely

✓ High heat and vaporization BASES

o Evaporation requires large amount of  Have a bitter taste, feel slippery, and are
heat proton acceptors
o Useful cooling mechanism  Hydroxides are common inorganic bases
✓ Chemical Reactivity  Hydroxides ionize and dissociates in water;
o Necessary part of hydrolysis and but in this case, the hydroxyl ion (OH-) and
dehydration some cations are released
 Neutralization reaction:
✓ Cushioning  NaOH Na+ + OH-
o Protects certain organs from physical
trauma MEASUREMENT RELATIVE CONCENTRATION OF
o E.g. Cerebrospinal fluid cushions nervous HYDROGEN IONS
system organs
 Neutral: pH = 7
 Acidic: pH below 7
2. SALT
 Basic: pH above 7
 Is an ionic compound containing cations
other than H+ and anions other than the
BUFFER
hydroxyl ion (OH-)
 Chemical that can regulate pH change
 When dissolved in body fluids, salts easily
 Slight change in pH affects tissues in our
separate into their ions – dissociation
body
 All ions are called electrolytes because they
can conduct electrical currents in solution
RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS
 Common salts in body: NaCl, CaCO3, KCl
 Unable to excrete carbon dioxide
 High pH level
3. ACIDS AND BASES
 Are also electrolytes for they ionize and then
RESPIRATORY ALKALOSIS
dissociate in water and can then conduct an
 Excreting too much carbon dioxide
electrical current
SOME IMPORTANT PH SCALE IN THE HUMAN
ACIDS
BODY
 Have a sour taste and can dissolve many
 Saliva: 5.75-7.05
metals or burn a hole in your rug
 Gastric Juice: 1.5-3.5
 A substance that can release hydrogen ions
 Pancreatic Juice: 8
(H+) in detectable amounts
 Blood: 7.35-7.45
 Hydrogen ion (H+) is essentially a hydrogen
nucleus (“naked proton”) – acids are also  Spinal fluid: 7.4
defined as proton donors
If the pH turns 6, it is already acidic
 When dissolved in water, they release
hydrogen and some anions  Blood can’t function properly
 Blood can’t function nutrients
 Blood can’t transport oxygen and essential
amounts
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
 Exceptions: CO2 and CO, which are inorganic
waste and respiratory gases, aren’t polymers
 Needs to be broken down and readily used
in our body
 Carbon is electroneutral: it shares electrons,
never gains/loses them
MAJOR ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
 Carbohydrates (BB: monosaccharides)
 Lipids (BB: glycerol and fatty acids)
 Proteins (BB: amino acids)
 Nucleic Acids (BB: nucleotides)
1. CARBOHYDRATES
 Includes sugars and starches
 Contain C, H, and O
 “hydrated carbon”
 Immediate source of energy
 Hydrogen and oxygen are in 2:1 ratio
 Provide a ready, easily used source of food
for cells
 Glucose: is at the top of the cellular menu
THREE CLASSES OF CARBOHYDRATES
A. MONOSACCHARIDES
 One sugar / simple sugars
 Single chain / single-ring structures (3-7
carbon atoms)
 Pentose: monomers of carbohydrates
 Ribose and Deoxyribose: form part of the
structure of nucleic acids, another group of
organic molecules
 Hexose: glucose, fructose, galactose
 Glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, and
deoxyribose
 Glucose: “blood sugar”
 Glucose: universal cellular fuel
 Fructose and Galactose: are converted to
glucose for use by body cells
 Galactose: cheese and yoghurt
B. DISACCHARIDES
 Double sugars
 Too large to pass through cell membranes
 Needs to be broken down – water; hydrolysis
 Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose
 Lactose = Glucose + Galactose
 Maltose = Glucose + Glucose
C. POLYSACCHARIDES
 Polymers of monosaccharides
 Long, branching chains of linked simple
sugars
 Ideal for storage products
 They lack the sweetness of the simple and
double sugars
 Only two polysaccharides are important to
the body: starch and glycogen
 Starch: is the storage of polysaccharide
formed by plants
 Glycogen: carbohydrate-storage form used
by animals
 Not soluble in water
2. LIPIDS
 Are large and diverse groups of organic
compounds
 Enter the body in the form of fat-marbled
meats, egg yolks, milk products, and oils
 The most abundant lipids in the body are
triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.
 All lipids contain carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen atoms
 Carbon and hydrogen far outnumber oxygen
atoms
 Most lipids are insoluble in water but readily
dissolve in other lipids and in organic
solvents such as alcohol and acetone
TYPES OF LIPIDS
A. TRIGLYCERIDES
 “neutral fats”
 Represent the body’s most abundant and
concentrated source of usable energy
 When they are oxidized, they yield large
amounts of energy
 They are stored chiefly in fat deposits
beneath the skin and around body organs,
where they help insulate the body and
 protect deeper body tissues from heat loss
and bumps
 Composed of two types of building blocks:
fatty acid and glycerol
 Make up 75% of fats in the human body
 Their synthesis involves the attachments of
three fatty acids to a single glycerol
molecule
 Called fats when solid
 Oils when liquid
 Main functions: energy storage, insulation,
and protection against trauma and other
injuries
 Can be constructed of saturated and
unsaturated fatty acids
SATURATED
 Fatty acid chains with only single covalent
bonds between carbon atoms
 Their fatty acid chains are straight
 At room temperature, the molecules are
pack closely together, forming a solid
UNSATURATED
 Contain one (monounsaturated) or more
double (polyunsaturated) bonds between
carbon atoms
 The double and triple bonds cause fatty
acids chains to kink so that they cannot pack
closely enough to solidify
TRANS FAT
 Common in many margarines and baked
products, are oils that have been solidified
by addition of hydrogen atoms at sites of
double carbon bonds
 Increasing the risk of heart disease
 Modified oils – unhealthy
OMEGA-3 FATTY ACIDS
 Found naturally in cold-water fish
 Appear to decrease the risk of heart disease
and some inflammatory diseases
 “heart healthy”
B. PHOSPOHOLIPIDS
 Found in cell membranes
 Modified triglycerides
 They differ in that a phosphorus-containing
group is always part of the molecule and
takes place of one of the fatty acid chains
 Have two instead of three attached fatty
acids
 Because the phosphorus-containing portion
(the “head”) bears an electrical charge, it
gives phospholipids special chemical
properties and polarity
 Glycerol and 2 fatty acids plus a phosphorus
containing group
 Contain C, H, O, and phosphorus
C. STEROIDS
 Lipids that contain cholesterol
 Flat molecules formed of four interlocking
rings
 Like fats, they are made largely by hydrogen
and carbon atoms and are fat-soluble
 Common steroids; cholesterol, vitamin D,
steroid hormones, and bile salts
 Most important steroid is cholesterol
 Cholesterol: building block for Vitamin D,
steroid synthesis, and bile salts synthesis
 Hormones such as estrogens and
testosterones are steroids
D. EICOSANOIDS
 Derived from a fatty acid (arachidonic acid)
found in cell membranes
 Most important eicosanoids are
prostaglandins which play a role in blood
clotting, control of blood pressure,
inflammation and labor contraction
 Thromboxanes: initiate the construction
and clotting of platelets
3. PROTEINS
 Comprises 20%-30% of cell mass
 Have most varied functions of any
molecules
 Structural, chemical (enzymes), and
contraction (muscle)
 Contain C, H, O, N, and sometimes S and P
AMINO ACIDS
 Amino acids: building blocks of proteins
 About 20 common varieties of amino acids
are found in proteins
 Carboxyl gives the acidic property
 Amine gives the basic property
 R group sets differences of amino acids
 Joined together in chains to form large,
complex protein molecules that contain
from 50 to thousands of amino acids
 Polypeptide: amino acid chains containing
fewer than 50 amino acids
STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
 Primary Structure: sequence of amino acids
composing the polypeptide chain
 Primary Structure: resembles a strand of
amino acids “beads”, is the backbone of
protein molecule
 Secondary Structure: alpha helix and beta
pleated sheet
 Secondary Structure: alpha helix is formed
by coiling of the primary chain and is
stabilized by hydrogen bonds
 Secondary Structure: beta pleated sheet is
wherein the polypeptide chains are linked
side by side by hydrogen bonds to form a
pleated, ribbonlike structure that resembles
an accordion
 Tertiary Structure: is achieved when an
alpha-helical or beta-pleated regions of the
polypeptide chain fold upon one another to
produce a compact ball-like, or globular
molecule
 Quaternary Structure: two or more
polypeptide chains combine in a regular
manner to form a complex protein
FIBROUS & GLOBULAR PROTEINS
FIBROUS PROTEINS
 “structural proteins”
 Strand-like, water soluble, and stable
 Appear most often in body structures
 Some exhibit only secondary structure but
most have tertiary or even quaternary
structure
 Important in binding structures together
and providing strength and mechanical
support in certain body tissues
 Collagen: found in bones, cartilage, and
tendons and is the most abundant protein
in the body
 Keratin: is the structural protein of hair and
nails and the material that makes skin tough
GLOBULAR PROTEINS
 “functional proteins”
 Mobile, compact, spherical, water soluble,
and sensitive to environmental changes
 Have at least tertiary structure
 Play crucial roles in virtually all biological
processes because they do things rather
than just form structures
 Some antibodies hep to provide immunity
 Hormones help to regulate growth and
development
 Enzymes regulate essentially every chemical
reaction that goes on within the body
 If subjected into high temperature,
denaturation might happen
ENZYMES
 Are functional proteins that act as biological
catalysts
 No enzyme, no reaction
CATALYSTS
 Substance that regulates and increases the
rate of a chemical reaction without
becoming part of the product or being
changed itself
 Lower the energy needed to initiate a
chemical reaction
4. NUCLEIC ACIDS
 Make up the genes which are the basic
blueprint of life
 Composed of C, H, O, N, and P
 Considered as the largest biological
molecules in the body
 Three basic parts: nitrogen-containing base,
pentose sugar, and phosphate group
TWO MAJOR CLASSES
A. DNA
 Double strand
 Holds the genetic blueprint for the synthesis
of all proteins
 Located in the cell nucleus
 Nucleotides contain a deoxyribose sugar, a
phosphate group, and one of 4 nitrogen
bases
 Purines: adenine (A), guanine (G)
 Pyrimidines: cytosine (C), thymine (T)
 it replicates itself exactly before a cell
divides, thus ensuring that the genetic
information in every cell is identical
 it provides the instructions for building
every protein in the body
 Bases: A, G, C, and T
B. RNA
 Single strand
 Located outside the nucleus
 “molecular slave” of DNA
 Carries out the orders for protein synthesis
issued by DNA
 Bases: A, G, C, and U
 Three major varieties: messenger,
ribosomal, and transfer RNA
 Messenger RNA: carries the information for
building the protein from the DNA genes to
the ribosomes, the protein-synthesizing
sites
 Transfer RNA: ferries amino acids to the
ribosomes
 Ribosomal RNA: forms part of the
ribosomes, where it oversees the
translation of the message and the binding
together of amino acids to form the
proteins
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP)
 Modified nucleotide
 Consists of adenine base, ribose sugar, and
three phosphate groups
 Chemical energy released when glucose is
broken down
 Offers immediate, usable energy needed by
body cells
 Used to provide cellular energy
 Provides a form of chemical energy that all
body cells can use
 Without it, molecules cannot be made or
broken down, cells cannot maintain their
boundaries, and all life processes grind to a
halt
CELLS
 The most basic living unit of all living things
 Discovered by Robert Hooke
THE CELL THEORY
 Proposed by Schleiden (Plant Cells),
Schwann (Animal Cells), and Virchow (Pre-
existing)
 Viruses are not true cells and are not living
things
BASIC
1. The cell is the basic functional and structural
unit of all organisms.
2. All living things are made up of one cell
(unicellular) or more cells (multicellular).
3. Cells come from pre-existing cells.
ADVANCED
1. The activity of an organism depends on the
collective activities of its cells.
2. The biochemical activities of cells are
dictated by their shape or form, and by the
relative number of their specific subcellular
structures (Principle of Complementarity).
3. Continuity of life has cellular basis.
TYPES OF CELLS
A. PROKARYOTIC
 Cells without a true nucleus and membrane-
bound organelles
B. EUKARYOTIC
 Cells with a true nucleus and membrane-
bound organelles
ANATOMY OF A GENERALIZED CELL
1. THE NUCLEUS
 The control center of the cell
 Contains the Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
A. NUCLEAR ENVELOPE/MEMBRANE
• A double-membrane fused barrier that
bounds the nucleus
• In between the nucleus and nuclear
envelope is a fluid-filled space
• The fused region of its two layers are
penetrated by nuclear pores – which
allows some entrance and can be passed
through with ease
• Encloses a fluid-like substance called
nucleoplasm
B. NUCLEOLI
• Small, dark-staining, round
• Where ribosomes are assembled
C. CHROMATIN
• DNA combined with protein
• Loose network of bumpy threads
• During mitosis or meiosis, threads coil
and condenses to form chromosomes
2. PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Fragile, transparent barrier
 Separates the cells from its surrounding
environment
 Semi-permeable
A. THE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
• Essentially the plasma membrane is
made of phospholipids and a substantial
amount of cholesterol
• Hydrophilic
• Hydrophobic
• Self-orienting
• Surrounded by protein
B. MEMBRANE JUNCTIONS
• Cells are bound together in the ff. ways:
✓ Glycoproteins act as a cellular
glue
✓ Wavy contours of adjacent cells
fit together in a tongue-and-
groove fashion
✓ Special membrane junctions are
formed – which vary depending
on the function
• Intercellular bridges
• Combines cells together – aggregates
them to form tissues
• Consists of multiple-protein complexes
that provide contact between cells or
between a cell and the extracellular
matrix
• Free flowing cells are in the extracellular
fluid
• All three types of cell junctions can be
found within the same tissue
• Tight Junctions
✓ Prevents fluid and molecules
from moving in between cells
✓ No leakage occurs
✓ Impermeable Membrane
✓ Ie. Urinary Bladder
• Desmosomes
✓ aka Adhesion
✓ Strong and flexible connections
✓ Prevents cells from being pulled
by mechanical stress
✓ Rivet like cell junction formed
when linker (Cadherins),
connectedly button like plagues,
of cells interlock like zipper teeth
✓ Cadherins form the actual
anchors as the transmembrane
linker
✓ Ie. Keratin Pigments, Skeletal
Muscle
• Gap Junctions
✓ Transmembrane proteins
(Connexons) form tunnels that
allow molecules to pass from the
cell
✓ Connexons are where ion and
electrical signals can flow
 ✓ Allows communication and
attachment
✓ More effective for
communication rather than
binding
✓ Ie. Cardiac, Smooth, and Muscle
Cells
3. CYTOPLASM
 Site of most cellular activities
 Contains three major elements
A. CYTOSOL
• Semi-transparent fluid that suspends
other elements
• Largely water which contains nutrients
and a variety of other solutes
B. INCLUSIONS
• Presence depends on the cell type
• Mostly stored nutrients or cell products
C. ORGANELLES
• “Little organs”
• Each organelle has a specific function
4. CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
 The little factories of the cell
A. MITOCHONDRIA
• “Powerhouse” of the Cell
• Lozenge-like or Sausage-like shape
• Can squirm, lengthen, or change shape
• Outer Membrane: Smooth, featureless
• Inner Membrane: Cristae (Shelf-like
Intrusions)
• Ie. Liver and Muscle cells have huge
amounts of Mitochondria
B. RIBOSOMES
• Responsible for Protein Synthesis
• Tiny, bilobed, dark bodies made of
protein and Ribosomal RNA
C. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUMS
• Passageway of food and substances
• System of fluid-filled canals or tubules
(called cisterns) that coil and twist
through the cytoplasm
• Mini-circulatory system of the cell
• Rough ER
✓ Studded with ribosomes
✓ Proteins made from the
ribosomes are dispatched
through the transport vesicles
✓ Main Responsibility: Proteins
• Smooth ER
✓ Main Responsibility: Lipid
Synthesis
D. GOLGI APPARATUS
• “Traffic Director” or “Post Office”
• Main Function: Modify and package
proteins
• Exports proteins through the secretory
vesicles
• Stack of flattened membranous sacs
with swarms of tiny vesicles
• Generally found close to the nucleus
E. LYSOSOMES
• “Suicide bags” or “Demolition Sites”
• Contains powerful digestive enzymes
and numerous phagocytes
F. PEROXISOMES
• “Tea bag”
• Detoxifies and disarms free radicals
(Reactive chemicals with unpaired
electrons that can scramble nucleic acid
– byproducts of cellular metabolism)
• Converts free radicals into hydrogen
peroxide
• Catalase converts excess hydrogen
peroxide into water
• Contains powerful oxidase enzymes that
uses oxygen to detoxify harmful
substances (ie. Alcohol and
Formaldehyde)
• Ie. Kidneys and Livers
 G. CYTOSKELETON
• “Bones and Muscles” or “Framework”
• Elaborate network of protein structures
• Furnishes the cell with an internal
framework
• Determines the cell shape and supports
other organisms
• Provides the machinery for intracellular
transport and cellular movements
• Intermediate Filaments
✓ Strong, stable, and rope-like
✓ Provides internal “guy wires” to
resist pulling forces on cells
✓ Helps form desmosomes
• Microfilaments
✓ Actin and Myosin
✓ Most involved in cell motility
and shape changes
• Microtubules
✓ Tube-like
✓ Determines overall shape of the
cell and organelle distribution
✓ Important during cell division
H. CENTRIOLES
• Rod-shaped bodies that lie at right
angles to each other
• Internally made up of pinwheel array of
fine microtubules
• Lies close to the nucleus
• Main Function: Generates microtubules
and directs the formation of mitotic
spindle
5. CELL EXTENSIONS
 Surface extensions
A. CILIA
• Whip-like cellular extensions
• Moves substances along the cell surface
B. FLAGELLA
• Substantially longer than cilia
• Provides propulsion
• Ie. Sperm Cell
C. MICROVILLI
• Tiny, finger-like extensions projected out
of the plasma membrane
• Tremendously increases cell surface
• Usually found in cell types that are
plenty involved in absorption
• Have a core of actin filaments that
extends into the internal cytoskeleton of
the cell and stiffens the microvillus
• Ie. Intestinal and Kidney tubule cells
MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
 Involves the selectively permeable, Plasma
Membrane
 INTRACELULLAR FLUID: Solution that
contains small amount of gases, nutrients,
and salts dissolved in water
 INTERSTITIAL FLUID: Continuously bathes
the exterior of cells – “has lots of
ingredients”
 SOLUTION: Homogenous mixture
 SOLVENT: Largest amount in a solution (Ie.
Water)
 SOLUTES: Smaller amount in a solution
1. PASSIVE PROCESSES
 Requires no ATP
A. DIFFUSION
• Process wherein molecules move away
from a region where they are more
concentrated (more numerous) to a
region where they are less concentrated
(less numerous)
• Main Source of “Energy”: The Kinetic
Energy of the Molecules
• Due to the kinetic energy of the
molecules they tend to move erratically
and collide with each other
• This tendency overall results to the
molecules moving down their
concentration gradient
• The greater the difference in
concentration gradient, the faster the
diffusion
 • Scatters molecules equally
• Speed of Diffusion: Size : Temperature
• The plasma membrane’s hydrophobic
core is a physical barrier to diffusion.
However, diffusion may still occur if the
following are true:
✓ Molecules are small enough to
pass through the membrane’s
pores
✓ Molecules are lipid-soluble
✓ Molecules are assisted by a
membrane carrier
• Simple Diffusion
✓ Unassisted, diffuses directly
✓ Molecules are either non-polar,
lipid-soluble or can pass through
pores
• Osmosis
✓ Diffusion of water through a
selectively permeable
membrane
✓ AQUAPORINS: Special water
pores
✓ Occurs all the time as water
moves down its concentration
gradient
• Facilitated Diffusion
✓ Assisted by carrier or channel
mediated
B. FILTRATION
• Water and solutes are pushed by using
fluid or hydrostatic pressure
• Pressure Gradient must exist (Filtration
version of Concentration Gradient)
• Filtrate is pushed by the Pressure
Gradient from high pressure area to low
pressure area
• Generally, only occurs across capillary
walls (Ie. Kidneys – Main site of
nitrogenous waste filtration)
2. ACTIVE PROCESSES
 Requires ATP
A. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Sometimes called “Solute Pump”
• Requires a protein carrier
• Uses ATP to energize protein carrier
called solute pumps
• Sometimes moves against concentration
or electrical gradients
• Usually involves large and not lipid
soluble molecules
• Sodium-Potassium Pump
✓ Necessary for normal
transmission of nerve impulses
✓ Sodium ions tend to stay inside
the cell unless forcible pumped
out by the cell
✓ ATP converts into ADP
(Adenosine Diphosphate)
✓ High Energy Bonding Phosphate
changes the shape of the Protein
Pump (Phosphorylation)
✓ The cell then expels the Sodium
out of the cell and releases the
Potassium into the cell
B. VESICULAR TRANSPORT
• Moves substances in and out of the cells
without actually crossing the plasma
membrane
• Exocytosis
✓ Moves substances out of cells
✓ Secretions are packaged by Golgi
Apparatus into vesicles
• Endocytosis
✓ Extracellular substances are
engulfed by vesicles and moves
them into the cytoplasm
✓ Usually fused with a lysosome
and the contents are digested by
the lysosomal enzymes
OSMOLARITY
 Measure of total concentration of solute
particles
 Water concentration varies with the
number of solute particles because solute
particles displace water molecules
 Solute Concentration and Water
Concentration have an indirect relationship
 Water moves by the osmosis from low to
high solute concentration
 When solutions are separated by
permeable membrane both solutes and
water cross in order to achieve equilibrium
 Osmosis occurs until equilibrium is achieved
 Sometimes equilibrium means same
concentrations but different volumes
 The number of solutes and osmotic
pressure have a direct relationship
 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE: Pressure inside
the cell
 OSMOTIC PRESSURE: Tendency of water to
move via osmosis
TONICITY
 Ability to change via altering the cell’s water
volume
 LOW TONICITY: Low concentration of
solutes
 HIGH TONICITY: High concentration of
solutes
1. ISOTONIC
 Equilibrium
 Same osmolarity inside the cell thus the
volume is unchanged
 Same tonicity
 Has the same solute and water
concentration as is inside the cell
 Causes no visible changes
2. HYPERTONIC
 There are more solutes in the solution than
inside the cell
 Water Concentration is higher inside the
cell than outside the cell thus the water
leaves the cell
 The cell shrivels and becomes dehydrated
3. HYPOTONIC
 Solution (External Environment) has fewer
solutes than the cell thus the water enters
the cells
 Water Concentration is higher in the
solution than inside the cell
 The cell becomes bigger – it swells, and, in
some cases, it bursts or lyse
 Extreme Case: Distilled Water
 Hypotonic Solutions are usually used to
rehydrate dehydrated patients
TISSUES
 Collection of cells with the same function
and structure
FOUR TYPES OF BODY TISSUES
1. Epithelial Tissue (Covering)
2. Connective Tissue (Support)
3. Muscle Tissue (Movement)
4. Nervous Tissue (Communication)
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 Body Covering, Body Linings, and Glandular
Tissue
 Functions:
✓ PROTECTION (ie. Against Bacteria)
✓ ABSORPTION (ie. Digestive System)
✓ FILTRATION (ie. Kidneys)
✓ SECRETION (ie. Sweat Glands)
 Characteristics:
✓ FORMS A CONTINUOUS SHEET
• Cells are fit closely together
✓ HAS AN APICAL SURFACE
• Most are slick and smooth
• Some can have cilia or
microvilli
• Membranes always have one
unattached/free surface/edge
• Exposed to the body’s exterior
or to the cavity of an internal
organ
✓ LOWER SURFACE RESTS ON A
BASEMENT MEMBRANE
 • Anchoring device for tissues
• Holds tissues together
• For scaffolding
• Structureless material secreted
by epithelial cells and the
connective tissue cells
✓ AVASCULAR
• No own blood supply
• Depends on diffusion from
capillaries for food and oxygen
✓ REGENERATES EASILY IF WELL
NOURISHED
 Classifications (According to No. of Layers):
✓ SIMPLE EPITHELIUM (1 Layer)
• Focus: Absorption, Secretion,
Filtration
• Very thin
• Not specialized for protection
✓ STRATIFIED (> 1 Layers)
• Focus: Protection
• Considerably durable
 Classifications (According to Shape):
✓ SQUAMOUS
• Flattened like fish scales
• Reduces frictions
• Diffusion and Filtration
✓ CUBOIDAL
• Cube-shaped like a dice
• Secretion and Absorption
• Rare in humans
✓ COLUMNAR
• Stretched cuboidal
• Secretion and Absorption
• Rare in human (Stratified only)
✓ TRANSITIONAL
• Stretching to accommodate
distension of urinary structures
• Only associated with Stratified
Layers
 Types of Simple Epithelium Tissues:
✓ SIMPLE SQUAMOUS
• Fits closely together (like floor
tiles)
• Forms membranes that
facilitate filtration or exchange
of substances through rapid
diffusion
• Forms serous membranes or
serosae
• Commonly found in air sacs,
capillary walls
✓ SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
• Commonly found in glands and
their ducts
• Forms walls of the kidney
tubules and covers the surface
of the ovaries
• Ie. Salivary Glands and
Pancreas
✓ SIMPLE COLUMNAR
• Often contains goblet cells –
which produce lubricating
mucus
• Lines the entire length of the
digestive tract (S to A)
• Mucosae or Mucous
Membranes - epithelial tissues
that line body cavities that
open to the body exterior
✓ PSUEDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR
• Gives false sense that it is a
stratified type of epithelial
tissue
• Some cells are shorter than the
others
• Its ciliated variety lines the
respiratory tract
• Also contains goblet cells
 Types of Stratified Epithelium Tissues:
✓ STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
• Most common stratified
epithelium tissue
 • Mostly refers to the cells near
the apical surface
• Usually located in places that
deal with lots of abuse (your
Heart 😉 jk no – Esophagus,
Mouth, and other outer parts)
and friction
✓ STRATIFIED CUBIODAL AND
STRATIFIED COMLUMNAR
• Both are uncommon or rare in
the body
• Both are usually found in ducts
of large glands
• SCub: Only contains two cell
layers – typically with its
surface in a cuboidal shape
• SCol: Basal cells vary in size and
shape
✓ TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
• Highly modified
• Subjected to a lot of stretching
• Can slide past one another and
change shape
• Forms the lining of only a few
organs all found in the urinary
system – urinary bladder,
ureters, and part of the urethra
• Basal Layer may contain
columnar or cuboidal shaped
cells
• Cells in apical surface vary in
appearance
• NS: Membrane is many
layered, Superficial cells are
rounded and domelike
• S: Membrane thins, Superficial
cells flatten and become
squamous-like
✓ GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
• A gland consists of one or more
cells that make and secrete a
product (secretion)
• Secretion typically contains
protein molecules in an
aqueous (water-based) fluid
• Secretion also indicates a
specific active process
• ENDOCRINE GLANDS
▪ Often called ductless
glands
▪ Diffuses directly onto
the blood vessels
▪ Ie. Thyroid, Adrenals,
and Pituitary
• EXOCRINE GLANDS
▪ Retains their ducts
▪ Releases secretions onto
the apical surface’s
ducts
▪ Ie. Sweat, Sebaceous,
Liver, Pancreas
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Is the most abundant and widely
distributed of the tissue types
 Primarily involved in protecting,
supporting, and binding together other
body tissues
 Consists of living cells surrounded by a
matrix
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Variations in blood supply
• Most tissues are well vascularized
• They have a good blood supply but
they have exceptions (e.g., tendons,
and ligaments)
• Cartilage – avascular (having few or
no blood vessels)
• Broken bone heals faster than a torn
ligament
 Extracellular Matrix
• Non-living substance found outside
the cells
• It is what makes connective tissue
different from other tissue types
• Produced by the connective tissue
cells and then secreted to their exterior
• Two main elements: structureless
ground substance and fibers.
 1. Ground substance: composed largely
of water plus some cell adhesion
proteins and large, charged
polysaccharide molecules.
• Cell Adhesion Proteins: serve as a
glue that allows the connective tissue
cells to attach themselves to the matrix
fibers embedded in the ground
substance
• Charged Polysaccharide Molecules:
trap water as they intertwine. As these
polysaccharides become more
abundant, they cause the matrix to vary
from fluid to gel-like to firm in its
consistency.
2. Fibers: mainly produced by the cells
• Collagen/White Fibers: high tensile
strength
• Elastic/Yellow Fibers: has the ability
to stretch and recoil
• Reticular Fibers: fine collagen fibers
that form the internal “skeleton” of soft
organs such as the spleen.
• Spleen – recycles blood cells
• Spleen – immunity (WBC)
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Their major differences reflect specific
cell types, fiber types, and the number of
fibers in the matrix
 From most rigid to softest or most fluid,
the major connective tissue classes are
bone, cartilage, dense connective tissue,
loose connective tissue, and blood
1. BONE
 “osseous” tissue
 Composed of osteocytes (bone cells)
sitting in the cavities called lacunae –
“pits”
 Pits: contain calcium salt in addition to
large numbers of collagen fibers
 Pits: has a rocklike hardness that’s why
bone has an ability to protect and
support other body organs (ex. skull-
brain)
2. CARTILAGE
 Major cell type: chondrocytes (cartilage
cells)
 Found in only a few places in the body
 Hyaline cartilage: most widespread that
has abundant collagen fibers hidden by a
rubbery matrix with a glassy
(hyaline=glass), blue-white appearance.
 Fibrocartilage: highly compressible and
forms the cushion-like disks between the
vertebrae of the spinal column
 Elastic Cartilage: found in structures
with elasticity such as the external ear
3. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Dense fibrous tissue
 Collagen fibers are the main matrix
element
 Makes up the lower layers of the skin
(dermis) where it is arranged in sheets
 Fibroblast (fiber-forming cells): crowds
between the collagen fibers that
manufacture the building blocks of these
fibers
 Forms strong, rope-like structures such
as tendons and ligaments
 Tendons: attach skeletal muscles to
bones
 Ligaments: connect bones to bones at
joints
4. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Softer and have more cells and fewer
fibers than any other connective tissue
types except blood
 Three main types: areolar, adipose, and
reticular
 Areolar: most widely distributed
connective tissue variety in the body
 Areolar: soft, pliable, cobwebby tissue
that cushions and protects the body
organs it wraps
  Areolar: functions as a universal packing
tissue and glue because it helps to hold
the internal organs together and in their
proper positions
✓ Lamina Propria: soft layer of areolar
connective tissue that underlies all
mucous membranes
✓ Areola = small open space
✓ Edema: condition when a body region
is inflamed and the area swells and
becomes puffy
 Adipose: fat
 Adipose: forms the subcutaneous tissue
beneath the skin, where it insulates the
body and protects it from bumps and
extremes of both heat and cold
 Reticular: consist of a delicate network
of interwoven reticular fibers associated
with reticular cells, which resemble
fibroblasts
 Reticular: forms the stroma
(bed/mattress) that can support many
free blood cells (WBC and lymphocytes)
 Reticular: “cellular bleachers” where
other cells can observe their
surroundings
5. BLOOD
 Vascular tissue
 Consists of blood cells surrounded by a
non-living, fluid matrix called blood
plasma
 Fibers of blood are soluble proteins that
become visible only during blood clotting
 Is the transport vehicle for the
cardiovascular system, carrying nutrients,
wastes, respiratory gases, WBC, and
many other substances throughout the
body
MUSCLE TISSUES
 Are highly specialized to contract, or
shorten, which generates the force
required to produce movement
 Three types: skeletal, cardiac, and
smooth
1. SKELETAL MUSCLE
 Tissue is packaged by connective tissue
sheets into these organs which are
attached to the skeleton
 These muscles, which can be controlled
voluntarily (consciously), form the flesh of
the body, the so-called muscular system
 When they contract, they pull on bones or
skin
 As a result, gross body movements or
changes in our facial expressions occur
 Its cells are long, cylindrical, and
multinucleate, and they have obvious
striations (stripes)
 “Muscle fibers” – elongated to provide a
long axis for contraction
2. CARDIAC MUSCLE
 Is found only in the heart wall
 It is under involuntary control, which
means that we cannot consciously
control the activity of the heart
 As it contracts, the heart acts as a pump
to propel blood through blood vessels
 Also has striations but have only a single
nucleus and are relatively short,
branching cells that fit tightly together
(clasped fingers) at junctions called
intercalated discs
 Intercalated discs: contain gap junctions
that allow ions to pass freely from cell to
cell
 This ties the cardiac cells into a functional
syncytium (syn = together, cyt = cell),
resulting in rapid conduction of the
electrical signal to contract across the
heart
3. SMOOTH MUSCLE
 Visceral muscle
 No striations are visible
 Individual cells have a single nucleus and
are tapered at both ends
  Found in the walls of hollow organs such
as the stomach, uterus, and blood vessels
 As it contracts, the cavity of an organ
alternately becomes smaller (constricts
when smooth muscle contracts) or
enlarges (dilates when smooth muscle
relaxes) so that substances are mixed
and/or propelled through the organ along
a specific pathway
 Contracts much more slowly than the
other two muscle types, and these
contractions tend to last longer
 Peristalsis: a wavelike motion that keeps
food moving through the small intestine,
is typical of its activity
NERVOUS TISSUE
 Neurons receive and conduct
electrochemical impulses from one part
of the body to another
 Irritability and conductivity are their two
major functional characteristics
 Neuroglia: special group of supporting
cells that insulate, support, and protect
the delicate neurons in the structures of
the nervous system – the brain, spinal
cord, and nerves
TISSUE REPAIR (WOUND HEALING)
 Skin and mucus membrane, cilia, and the
strong acid produced by stomach glands
are just three examples of body
defences exerted at the tissue level
 Inflammation: is a general (nonspecific)
body response that attempts to prevent
further injury
 Immune response: is extremely specific
and mounts a vigorous attack against
recognized invades (bacteria, viruses,
toxins)
TISSUE REPAIR PROCESS
1. INFLAMMATION
 Triggered by the injured tissues and cells
 Capillaries become permeable which
severely helps in blood clotting
 Permeability allows clotting proteins to
seep into the injured area
 Prevents bacteria from entering
 Exposure to air causes the clot to quickly dry
and harden (in simple words: it forms a
scab)
2. GRANULATION TISSUE FORMS
 Delicate pink tissues
 Composed mostly of new capillaries from
undamaged capillaries near the injured area
 Fragile as fuck and bleed freely (like picked
away scab)
 Contains phagocytes who eventually
remove the blood clot (aka like the people
who pick up the broken shards of your
heart)
 Contains connective tissues (FIBROBLASTS)
that forms the collagen fibers (SCAR TISSUE)
to permanently bridge the cap (aka mga
taga-buo permanently ng buhay at puso
mo)
3. REGENERATION AND FIBROSIS
 Surface tissue begins to regenerate and
goes under the granulation tissue beneath
the scar tissue
 Once the scab detaches, the fully
regenerated surface epithelial tissue
emerges
 The SET then covers the fibrosis (the scar)
 The fibrosis’ visibility depends on its
severity
 Regeneration varies differently
 Epithelial Tissues recover beautifully
 Fibrous Connective Tissues and Bones
recover well enough
 Skeletal Muscles regenerate poorly
 Cardiac Muscle and Nervous Tissue (Brain
and Spinal Cord) are mostly replaced by scar
tissue
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF CELLS AND
TISSUES
1. Growth by cell division continues through
puberty
 Cell populations exposed to friction (such as
epithelium) replace lost cells throughout life
 Connective tissue remains mitotic and
forms repair (scar) tissue
 With some exceptions, muscle tissue
becomes amitotic by the end of puberty,
and nervous tissue becomes amitotic
shortly after birth
 Injury can severely handicap amitotic
tissues
 Amitotic: the loss of ability to divide when
cells are fully mature
 Amitotic tissues: are severely handicapped
by injury because the lost cells cannot be
replaced by the same type of cells
2. The cause of aging is unknown, but chemical
and physical insults, as well as genetic
programming, have been proposed as
possible causes.
3. Neoplasm, both benign and cancerous,
represent abnormal cell masses in which
normal controls on cell division are not
working
 Hyperplasia: increase in size of a tissue or
organ may occur when tissue is strongly
stimulated or irritated
 Atrophy: decrease in size of a tissue or organ
occurs when the organ is no longer
stimulated normally
BODY MEMBRANES
 Cover surfaces, line body cavities and form
protective (and often lubricating) sheets
around organs
 Two major groups: Epithelial membranes
(cutaneous, mucous, and serous) and
Connective tissue membranes (synovial)
1. EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES
 Covering and lining membranes
 Cutaneous, mucous, and serous membranes
2. CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE
 Exposed to air and is a dry membrane
 Outermost protective boundary
 Composed of two layers; superficial
epidermis and underlying dermis
 Epidermis: composed of stratified squamous
epithelium
 Dermis: mostly dense (fibrous) connective
tissue, packed with collagen and utilized in
making leather bags
3. MUCOUS MEMBRANE
 Composed of epithelium resting on a loose
connective tissue membrane called lamina
propria
 Lamina propria: lines all body cavities that
open to the exterior, such as those of hollow
organs of the respiratory, digestive, urinary,
and reproductive tracts
 Mucosa: only location of the epithelial
membranes and not their cellular makeup
 Moist membranes that are continuously
bathed in secretions or urine
 Stratified squamous: mouth and esophagus
 Simple columnar: digestive tract
 The epithelium of mucosae is often adapted
for absorption or secretion
 Microvilli increases the supine area and is
efficient in absorption of nutrients
4. SEROUS MEMBRANES
 Serosa
 Composed of a layer of simple squamous
epithelium resting on a thin layer of areolar
connective tissue
 Line body cavities that are closed to the
exterior (except for dorsal body cavity and
joint cavities)
 Occurs in pair
 Parietal (parie=wall) layer: lines a specific
portion of the wall of the ventral body cavity
 Parietal (parie=wall) layer: it folds in on itself
to form the visceral layer, which covers the
outside of the organ(s) in that cavity
 Serous fluid: allows the organs to slide easily
across the cavity walls and one another
without fiction as they carry out their routine
functions
 Peritoneum: abdominal
 Pleura: around lungs
 Pericardium: around the heart
5. CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES
 Synovial membranes are composed of loose
areolar connective tissue and contain no
epithelial cells at all
 Line the fibrous capsules surrounding joints
where they provide a smooth surface and
secrete a lubricating fluid
 Line small sacs of connective tissue called
bursae and the tubelike tendon sheaths.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
 “covering”
 Skin and its appendages (sweat and oil
glands, hairs, and nails)
 Insulates and cushions the deeper body
organs and protects the entire body from
mechanical damage (bumps and cuts),
chemical damage (acids and bases), thermal
damage (heat and cold), UV radiation, and
microbes
SKIN FUNCTIONS
 Acids in loss/retention of body heat as
controlled by the nervous system
 Acids in excretion of urea and uric acid
 Synthesizes Vitamin D
 Cutaneous sensory receptors, detect touch,
temperature, pressure, and pain
SKIN STRUCTURE
 Epidermis: made up of stratified squamous
epithelium that is capable of becoming hard
and tough
 Epidermis: hardened by keratin to prevent
water loss
 Epidermis: avascular (no blood supply of its
own)
 Dermis: made up of mostly dense connective
tissue
 Subcutaneous (hypodermis): adipose (fat)
tissue
 Hypodermis: anchor the skin to underlying
organs and provides a site for nutrient
storage
 Hypodermis: serves as a shock absorber and
insulates deeper tissues from extreme
temperature changes occurring outside the
body
 Hypodermis: responsible for the curves that
are more a part of a woman’s anatomy than
man’s
LAYERS OF THE SKIN
1. EPIDERMIS
 Composed of five layers or strata
 Stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum,
lucidum, corneum
2. STRATUM BASALE
 Deepest cell layer of the epidermis
 Lies closest to the dermis and is connected
to it along a wavy border that resembles
corrugated cardboard
 Contains the most adequately nourished of
the epidermal cells because nutrients
diffusing from the dermis reach them first
 Stem cells in this layer are constantly
dividing, and millions of new cells are
produced daily – stratum germinativum
 Cells undergoing mitosis
 Daughter cells are pushed upward to
become part of the more superficial layers
 Stratum spinosum and granulosum: become
flatter and easily keratinized
3. STRATUM LUCIDUM
 Formed from dead cells of the deeper state
 Occurs only on thick, hairless skin of the
palms of hands and soles of feet
4. STRATUM CORNEUM
 Outermost layer of epidermis
 20-30 layers thick, ¾ of the epidermal
thickness
 Shinglelike dead cell remnants, completely
filled with keratin are referred to as
cornified, or horny, cells (cornu = horn)
DEEPEST TO MOST SUPERFICIAL
 Basale
 Spinosum
 Granulosum
 Lucidum
 Corneum
MELANIN
 A pigment that ranges in color from yellow
to brown to black is produced by spider-
shaped cells found chiefly in the stratum
basale
 Freckles and moles are seen where melanin
is concentrated in one spot
 Accumulates membrane-bund granules
called melanosomes
EPIDERMAL DENDRITIC CELLS
 Important “sentries” that alert and activate
immune system cells to a threat such as
bacterial or viral infection
 Merkel cells: associated with nerve endings
and serves as touch receptors
DERMIS
 Strong, stretchy envelope that helps to bind
the body together
 Two layers: papillary (areolar) and reticular
(dense irregular connective tissue) areas
1. PAPILLARY LAYER
 Superficial dermal region
 Uneven and has peglike projections from its
superior surface, called dermal papillae
 Dermal papillae: contain capillary loops
which furnish nutrients to the epidermis
 Dermal papillae: others house pain
receptors (free nerve endings) and touch
receptors
 Dermal papillae: fingerprints are identifying
films of sweat
2. RETICULAR LAYER
 Deepest skin layer
 Contains dense irregular connective tissue,
as well as blood vessels, sweat and oil glands,
and deep receptors called lamellar
corpuscles
 Collagen and elastic fibers located
throughout the dermis
SKIN COLOR
 Melanin: yellow, reddish brown, or black
 Carotene: orange-yellow pigment plentiful in
carrots and other orange, deep yellow, or
leafy green vegetables
 Haemoglobin: pigment in red blood cells
ALTERATIONS IN SKIN COLOR
 Redness/erythema: embarrassment
(blushing), fever, hypertension,
inflammatory, allergy
 Pallor/blanching: certain types of emotional
stress (fear and anger), anemia, low blood
pressure, or impaired blood flow into the
area
 Jaundice: liver disorder in which excess bile
pigments accumulate in the blood, circulate
throughout the body, and become deposited
in body tissues
 Bruises: hematoma, deficiency in Vitamin C
in the diet, or haemophilia (bleeder’s
disease)
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN
CUTANEOUS GLANDS
 Exocrine glands that release their secretions
to the skin surface via ducts
 Sebaceous glands and sweat glands: as these
glands are formed by the cells of the stratum
basale, they push into the deeper skin
regions and ultimately reside almost entirely
in the dermis
 Hair, hair follicles, nails
SEBACOUS (OIL) GLANDS
 Found all over the skin, except on the palms
of the hands and soles of the feet
 Their ducts usually empty into a hair follicle,
but some open directly onto the skin surface
 Very active when androgens (male sex
hormones) are produced in increased
amounts (in both sexes) during adolescence;
thus, the skin tends to become oilier during
this period of life
 Product: sebum
 Sebum: a mixture of oily substances and
fragmented cells
 Sebum: lubricant that jeeps the skin soft and
moist and prevents the hair from becoming
brittle
 Sebum: contains chemicals that kill bacteria
SWEAT GLANDS
 “Sudoriferous” glands
 Widely distribted in te skin
 2.5 M per person
 Two types: eccrine and apocrine
SUDORIFEROUS GLANDS
ECCRINE GLANDS
 Produce sweat, a clear secretion that is
primarily water plus some salts (NaCl), Vit C,
traces of metabolic wastes (ammonia, urea,
uric acid), and lactic acid (chemical that
accumulates during vigorous muscle activity)
 Can inhibit growth of certain bacteria
 Sweat: acidic (pH from 4 to 6) and reaches
the skin surface via a duct that open
externally as a funnel shaped called sweat
pore
APOCRINE GLANDS
 Largely confined to the axilliary (armpit) and
genital areas of thebody
 Are usually larger than eccrine glands and
their ducts empty into hair follicles
 Their secretion contains fatty acids and
proteins, as well as the substances present in
eccrine sweat
 The secretion may have a milky r yellowish
color and is odourless
HAIR
 Produced by hair follicle
 Root encloses in the follicle
 Shaft projects from the surface of the scalp
(skin)
 Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells
 Melanocytes provide pigment for the hair
odor
 Hair grows in the matrix of the hair bulb in
stratum basale
HAIR ANATOMY
 Central medulla
 Cortex surrounds medulla
 Cuticle on outside of matrix
 Most heavily keratinized region of the hair:
cuticle
 Cuticle: mostly subjected to abrasion, wears
away from the shaft, split ends
ASSOCIATED HAIR STRUCTURES
 Hair follicle: chemical and epidermal sheath
surrounded hair root
 Arrector pili muscle: smooth muscle and
pulls hair upright when person is cold or
frightened
NAILS
 Scale-like modification of epidermis
 Heavily keratinized (non-living material)
 Stratum basale beneath as the nail bed
(responsible for growth)
 Lack of pigment makes them odourless
 Nailbed: responsible for nail growth and if
it’s heavily damaged, then the nails won’t
grow
NAIL STRUCTURE
 Free edge
 Body is the visible attached portion
 Nail folds are skin folds that overlap the
edges of the nail
 Growth occurs from nail matrix
 Root of nail is embedded in skin
 Cuticle is the proximal nail fold that projects
onto the nail body
 Lunule is in white crescent appearance
(avascular)
BURNS
 Tissue damage and cell death caused by
heat, electrolytes, UV radiation, or chemicals
 Associated dangers: dehydration, electrolyte
imbalance, circulatory shock
 Results in loss of body fluids and invasion of
bacteria
RULE OF NINES
 Way to determine the extent of burns
 Body is divided into 11 areas for quick
estimation
 Each area represents about 9% of total body
surface
 Area of the surrounding genitals (1%)
SEVERITY OF BURNS
 First degree burns: partial thickness burn
✓ One epidermis is damages
✓ Skin is red and swollen
 Second degree burns: partial thickness burn
✓ Epidermal and upper dermis are
damaged
✓ Skin is red with blisters
 Third degree burns: full partial thickness
burn
✓ Destroys entire skin layer; burned area
is painless
✓ Requires skin grafts
✓ Burn is gray, white, or black
CRITICAL BURNS
 Over 25% has second degree burns
 Over 10% of the body has third degree burn
 There are third degree burn of the face,
hands, or feet
SKIN HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
INFECTIONS
 Athlete’s Feet (tinea pedis)
✓ Caused by fungal infection
 Boils and Carbuncles
✓ Caused by bacteria infection
 Contact Dermatitis
✓ Exposures cause allergic reaction
INFECTIONS AND ALLERGIES
 Cold sores: caused by virus
 Impetigo: caused by bacterial infection
 Psoriasis: chronic condition
✓ cause is unknown
✓ triggered by trauma, infection, stress
✓ overproduction of skin cells that causes
red epidermal lesions
SKIN CANCER
CANCER
 Abnormal cell mass
 Benign: does not spread (encapsulated)
 Malignant: metastasize (moves) to other
parts
SKIN CANCER TYPES
 Basal Cell Carcinoma
✓ Least malignant
✓ Most common type
✓ Arises from stratum basale
✓ Occurs on skin due to Sun exposure
✓ Slow growing and metastasize is seldom
✓ Cure: Surgical removal of Carcinoma
 Squamous Cell Carcinoma
✓ Arises from stratum spinosum
✓ Metastasizes to lymph nodes if not
removed
✓ Believed to be sun induced
✓ Early removal allows a good chance of
cure
 Malignant Melanoma
✓ Most deadly
✓ Cancer of melanocytes
✓ Metastasize rapidly to lymph and blood
vessels
✓ Detection uses ABCD rule

o A – Asymmetry
✓ Two sides of pigmented mole do not
match
o B – Border Irregularity
✓ Borders of mole are not smooth; it
exhibits indentations
o C – Colors
✓ Different colors may arise
o D – diameter
✓ Spot is larger than 6 mm in diameter

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF SKIN

 In youth, skin is thick, resilient and well
hydrated
 Skin cancer is a major threat to skin exposed
to excessive sunlight
 Balding and/or graying occurs with aging,
both are genetically determined
 Other factors that may contribute including
drugs and emotional stress