SS1 ONLINE BIOLOGY

TOWARDS A BETTER HEALTH

NOTE:  If you use your health to look for wealth, you will soon use your wealth
to look for health that is if you still have your breath.
Health is state of wellness and wholeness, a state of soundness and proper
functioning of the system while Diseases is a state of ill-health and a deviation
from health. To be healthy the following things must be done and they are:
1. Control of vector
2. Control of harmful microorganisms and
3. Control of diseases

CONTROL OF VECTORS
Vectors are animals which carry microorganisms capable of causing disease
(PATHOGENS) from the infected person to an uninfected person.
A. Control of Tsetse fly
a. Preventive measures
i. Farmers should be encouraged to breed cattle which are resistant to Nagana.
ii. Shady areas near towns or beside river banks should be cleared.
b. Preventive Measures
i. Spray with insecticides the resting places of Tsetse files during the day.
ii. Moving objectives such as cars and bicycles brought into the country
from countries suspected to have the prevalence of the Tsetse flies
should be sprayed with insecticide before your entry into the countries.
iii. Use drug to appropriately treat the sleeping sickness promptly once its
symptoms are diagnosed.

B. CONTROL OF BLACK FLIES

i. Monitoring the water bodies effectively to ensure successful control of
Black flies. How ?
ii. Breeding spots should be destroyed to prevent breeding by black flies.
How ?
iii. Use of drugs to cure and prevent diseases caused by black flies
iv. Insecticide should be used to fumigate the environment to destroy the
black flies.
v. Bush clearing should be encouraged around houses and homes to
eliminate and lower hiding places for adult black flies.
vi. Clean all toilets very well
vii. Do not keeping any stagnant water
viii. Stray insecticides
ix. Clearing of bushes
x. Clearing of broken bottles

C. CONTROL OF MOSQUITOES
i. To prevent mosquitoes bites insects repellant should be used in the body
ii. To kill adult and larval stages of Mosquitoes swamp/rooms should be
sprayed with Insecticides.
iii. Vaccination should be taken to cure or control Malaria fever
iv. Empty cans and broken pots should be buried to eliminate breeding
places of mosquitoes.
v. The use of fisher or predators should be employed to eat up the Mosquito
larvae. This is the use of biological control.
vi. To avoid mosquito bites, sleep in a room protected by mosquito net
vii. To prevent larval stages from breath ring and to reduces surfaces tension
of water the spray of oil on stamen water should be employed.
viii. Swamps which conserve as breeding ground for mosquitoes should be
drained.
ix. Clear all gutters
x. Spray insecticides
xi. Don not keep any stagnant water (engine oil). Pour engine oil on stagnant
water to prevent breeding and breathing spaces for insect.
xii. Use mosquito nets
xiii. Clearing of bushes

D. Control of House flies

i. Pit toilet must always be kept clean and covered.
ii. Environment must be kept clean to prevent multiplication of house flies.
iii. Breeding areas or materials or materials must be destroyed
iv. House flies must be prevented from feeding or defeacating on foods
especially already prepared food.
v. To kill adult House flies around and in the compound: spray with
insecticide.
vi. Poison baits can be used to attract house flies eat the food after which
they are poisoned to death.
vii. Disperse refuse very well
viii. Clearing of bushes
ix. Spraying of insecticides
x. Clear all broken bottles
xi. Do not keep any stagnant water
CONTROL OF HARMFUL MICRO ORGANISMS
The following ways can be used to control harmful micro organisms:
i. Isolating patients with infectious diseases (e.g. Measles, Tuberculosis)
ii. Destruction of vectors of diseases
iii. Very high or very low temperature
iv. Promoting health education
v. Covering foods always
vi. Quarantine services
vii. Communication of vaccination
viii. Sterilization by boiling
ix. Personal hygiene
x. Common salt
xi. Use of antibiotics or drugs
xii. Use of disinfectant
xiii. Use of antiseptic.

A. Use of antiseptic: The (antiseptics) destroy or inhibits the growth of Bacteria

and Viruses on the body. They are often applied to wound in hospital to prevent
them from becoming septic. Antiseptics don’t damage human tissues yet they kill
off pathogens. Antiseptics soap also inhibit the growth of Bacteria. They are used
on wound on the “skin” to prevents infectious diseases, used on abrasions AND
CUTS. Examples includes Camphor,. Iodine tincture, Hydrogen peroxide,
Common salt and Potassium permanganate, Dettol, Chlorine water etc

B. Use of disinfectants:- They are stronger than antiseptic so strong that they
cannot be applied on wounds the same ways as antiseptics but they also kill off
microbes. They prevents microorganisms from attacking our bodies, used for
sterilizing floors, clothing, hospital instrument, sick rooms etc Example: Include
solution of formal Destined, cresol, Crinoline, Lysol, carbonic acids, Izals
containing phenols, Sanitals etc.

C. Uses of anti-biotic: Examples of antibiotics include Streptomycin, Aureomycin,

Septrin, Chloramphenicol, and Chloroquine which is taken to attack Bacteria
infection and lots more.
Alexander Fleming an English scientist observed that Bacteria could not grow
side by side with the fungus Penicillium notatum many more antibiotics have been
prepared and formulated to cure diseases such as pneumonia, tuberculosis,
Typhoid fever, Dysentery, Boil & lots more, all of which are caused by bacteria
infection. Use of antibiotics or drugs in hospitals or at home is to control many
diseases and kill the micro-organism causing them.

D. Immunization or Vaccination: it involves the introduction, into the blood of

some de-activated microbes of a given diseases against which protection is desired.
Is the process by which a healthy person is inoculated (injected) with the
preparation of a mild form of the pathogen. Vaccine is the name of the preparation.
The presence of such microbes causes the blood to produce reasonable amounts of
anti-bodies specific for that diseases. When the microorganism of the diseases
attacks the body again, the body cells & antibodies recognize. The microorganism
and attack them. The recipient is immune against the diseases. Yellow Fever
inoculation gives protection against the diseases for about 7years while cholera
vaccination remains effective in the body for about 6months only. Vaccinations is
given to protect against deadly diseases mostly caused by viruses such as Measles,
Tetanus, Cholera, Tuberculosis, poliomyelitis etc. it is advised that travelers should
be immunized against chickenpox, yellow fever, measles, cholera, tetanus etc. this
is to ensure that these disease are not been carried to other countries by travelers.

E. Very high or very low temperature: There is lethal effects or LD-50

microorganisms with very low temperature. It renders them inactive, or freezes
them to death, hence, stops their pathogenic effects. Any substance kept in a
freezer is therefore preserved from the attack of microorganisms. In the 19th
century, Louis Pasteur, a French scientist, showed that very high temperatures of
about 150oc could destroy microorganisms living in milk, wine or meat broth. The
process of treating any mixture or solution to high temperature in order to kill off
the microbes is called pasteurization.

Control of disease.
Disease is an illness affecting human, animals or plants, often caused by infection.
It is also called a state of ill-health. To control diseases the following must be
done:
i. Discourage urinating or stooling in an open place.
ii. Eating of good food and balanced diet.
iii. Encourage the burning of domestic and industrial waste in incinerators.
iv. Living in well ventilated houses.
v. Taking of bath regularly.
vi. Wearing of clean and neat dresses.
vii. Daily sweeping of the surroundings.
viii. Cleaning of latrines and urinals with disinfectants.
 ix. Avoid drug abuse
x. Doing exercise regularly.
xi. Taking children for immunization by doctor’s prescription.
xii. Report any injury to the nearest hospital for immediate treatment.
xiii. Cleaning/brushing of teeth in the morning before breakfast and at night
after dinner with toothbrush and paste.

Ministry of health and community effort are extremely needed in the publication
and orientation to all of sundry over the control of disease. Infectious disease such
as cholera, tuberculosis and diseases generally can be checked by isolating the
patients in special infectious diseases hospital where specially trained medical
officers take care of them.

ASSIGNMENT
 Why do we have to control vectors, diseases and micro-organisms?
 How can disease be totally eliminated from our environment?
 Explain any three more methods of controlling harmful microorganisms that
has not been explained before
 Explain how a patient becomes sick with relevance to infection, micro-
organism, vector and disease.
 In a tabular form state FOUR differences between;
Disinfectant and antibiotics
Disinfectant and antiseptics
Antibiotics and antiseptics

WEEK 2

MAINTENANCE OF GOOD HEALTH

Individuals, communities, nations and the world at large should make maintenance
of good health an issue of common interest and concern.
Importance of maintenance of good health to a community
1. To avoid contagious and communicable diseases.
2. To enhance better standard of living financially and health wise
3. To bring down the cost and expenditures made on medical bills
4. To avoid epidemic and pandemic diseases
Things you must do to be healthy includes;
Drinking good water, wearing clean clothes, keeping the environment tidy,
eating balanced diet and many more. The ways in which communities maintain
good health are;
a. Health organization d. Control of diseases e. Water protection and f.
Refuse disposal
b. Sewage disposal
c. Protection of food

Health organization:- Nigerian Medical Association (NMA) and the Nigerian

Red Cross Society are the two Nigerian organisations which have plans for the
maintenance of good health among the Nigerian public. There are local and
international (corporate) bodies concerned with the maintenance of good health
International Red Cross, International Red Crescent Societies, World Health
Organization (WHO) and United Nation International Children’s Emergency
Fund (UNICEF) are international organizations committed to the maintenance
of people’s good health. These international bodies are for different purposes
and founded at various times.

HEALTH ORGANIZATION ROLES

A. INTERNATIONAL RED CROSS AND INTERNATIONAL RED
CRESCENT SOCIETIES
These two current arms were first proposed by Jean Henri Bunant (1828-1910), a
Swiss merchant in 1859. They are the two voluntary international health
organization current arm, there two major roles are in time of peace and war:
In Peaceful time, they are concerned with;
(a) provision of help to victims of natural disasters(earthquakes, floods etc)
(b) maintenance of maternal and child welfare clinics, (by red cross society)
(c) they provide first aid to patients
(d) prevention of accidents
(e) they train nurses’ aides
In time of war they are concerned with;
a. provide transport for the evacuation of refugees
 b. provide emergency aids to those in distress
c. welfare to prisoners of war
d. negotiation of the exchange of prisoners of war between countries
e. care of the injured.

B. NIGERIAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION (NMA)

In Nigerian, the national body concerned with the maintenance of good health,
caring for the needs of medical doctors in our country, encouraging the
government towards the provision of vital equipment to our hospitals and
encouraging the governments of the country to supply drugs is the Nigerian
Medical Association. Further functions of NMA includes;
(i). monitoring the recruitment of well trained doctors in our hospitals
(ii). assist in the training of para-medical and medical staff needed in the
delivery of health care.
(iii). creating the awareness to the outbreak of epidemic and pandemic diseases.
(iv). advice the government on where, when and how to improve the people’s
health state.
(v). make research on the etiology(cause), control, prevention, signs and
symptoms of diseases.

C. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO)

It is a special agency of the united nations organization (UNO), financed by all
member of countries of the UNO. The headquarters is in Geneva, Switzerland
and established in 1948. They work in the maintenance of the health of the
world which is achieved by;
(I). setting quarantine regulations internationally
(ii). in instance of emergency, they provide vaccines and drugs.
(iii). assist in child health care and maternal cases
(iv). creating awareness through the media and publication of medical journals
and literature review.
(v). they recommend and set standard safe drugs.
(vi). providing experts to train and advise the health personnel in neighbouring
countries.
(vii). creating medium of awareness to educate neighbouring countries in the
event of the outbreak of an epidemic and pandemic diseases.
(viii). keeping the health statistics of the world which help national health
authorities to check if a disease (e.g Cholera) is spreading or not at any time, to
enhance preparation to apply emergency control when and where necessary.
 (ix). It helps national health organizations (NHO) in the control of vectors of
diseases.

D. UNICEF: UNITED NATIONS INTERNATIONAL CHILDREN’S

EMERGENCY FUND\ UNITED NATIONS CHILDREN’S EDUCATION
FUND
1. They provide necessary equipment and training programmes to help improve
the health of mothers and children e.g to control Diarrhoea in children
which leads to dehydration, ORT, (Oral Rehydration Therapy) is provided.
2. They provide children’s need like clothing etc.
3. To provide equipment to prevent diseases such as poliomyelitis, whooping
cough, tuberculosis, diphtheria etc
4. Emergency needs of children in devastated areas are been provided.
5. Destitute children are been fed.
6. Under-nourished children’s nutrition are been improved

2. SEWAGE DISPOSAL
Sewage are waste -water materials released from kitchen, laundries, toilets,
bathrooms e.g urines and faeces. Sewage can be disposed through;
a. Community treatment process
b. Use of pit toilets for the passage of urine and faeces into deep pits.
c. Septic tanks are used to flush urine and faeces with water into the big tank
dug in the ground.

3. PROTECTION OF FOOD
Raw and cooked food should be properly protected by the following methods;
i. Do not expose foods to flies and other micro-organisms
ii. Wash your hands before and after eating of food
iii. Make sure the environment where the food is prepared is clean
iv. Make sure raw or cooked foods are boiled thoroughly before eating.

4. CONTROL OF DISEASES
Living in a clean environment is important if diseases will be effectively
controlled, the following must also be done to control diseases and they are;
i. Take your bathe regularly
ii. Live in a well-ventilated house
iii. Use disinfectant to clean latrines and urinals
 iv. Do exercise regularly
v. Only use prescribed drugs by the medical doctor
vi. Treat injuries immediately and report to the hospital
vii. Clean your teeth regularly with toothbrush and paste

5. WATER PROTECTION
Diseases can easily be contacted through the intake of unclean water, the following
must be done to protect our water;
i. Addition of Chlorine to kill microscopic plants
ii. Boil the water before you drink it.
iii. Filter the water on cooling
iv. Addition alum to the water
v. Store water in clean containers
All the above should be done before the water is passed into pipes into pipes and
other places that is of need.
6. REFUSE DISPOSAL
Refuse is simply defined as solid waste materials discharged through human
activities from homes and industries into the environment. Diseases spread when
refuse are carelessly dumped around dwelling places, creates bad odour and
provides breeding grounds for insects and rodents which are vectors to diseases.
The disposal of refuse can be done through through the following ways;
i. Bury refuse in a sanitary landfill
ii. Provision of dust bins in strategic places
iii. Burn refuse in incinerators
iv. Only dump refuse in isolated areas far from human habitation.
HOMEWORK:
1. What are the roles of the following in maintaining the health of the
community?
i. Protection of food
ii. Water protection
iii. Sewage disposal
iv. Refuse disposal
WEEK 3
THE CELL
Cell is the smallest unit of all living organisms. Every living organism is
made up of cell because it is the basic unit of life. Therefore a cell is defined as the
structural, functional and basic unit of a living organism.
It is regarded as the basic unit of life because a single cell is able to carry
out all the characteristics of living things.
HISTORY OF THE CELL
Cells appear in different shapes and sizes. The sizes of Cell range from
extremely small bacterial cell to large yolk cell of an ostrich egg . Cells show
variety of functions.
The word ‘cell’ was first used by an English scientist, Robert Hooke in the
year 1665. Robert Hooke , when working on his crude microscope, he viewed the
thin slice of cork under the microscope. He saw that it was made up of many little
boxes, this boxes he referred to them as cells after the Latin word which means ‘
small room’.
Several years later, scientists such as Felix Dujardin (he discovered
protoplasm in 1835), Matthias Schleiden (he discovered plant cell in 1838),
Theodor Schwann (he discovered animal cell in 1839), Rudolf Von Virchow ( he
concluded that cells come from pre-existing cells) .
STRUCTURE OF THE CELL
The cell is made up of living material called the PROTOPLASM. The
protoplasm consists of the cytoplasm and a nucleus.
The cytoplasm contains all the organelles, these are cellular structures
performing specific functions .They include the following: mitochondria,
ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, vacuole, lysosome etc.
 CELL ORGANELLES AND ITS FUNCTIONS
ORGANELLES FUNCTIONS
1. Mitochondrion It is called the power house of the
cell. It is the site of respiration.
2. Ribosomes They are responsible for protein
synthesis.
3. Golgi bodies /apparatus They are responsible for synthesis,
packaging and distribution of
materials.
4. Lysosomes They are involved in digestion and
removal of wastes e.g. excess or worn
out organelles, food particles,
engulfed viruses and bacteria. They
contain digestive enzymes.

5. Endoplasmic reticulum It helps in the distribution and

transportation of proteins and other
materials.
6. Centrioles They are involved in cell division.
7. Centrosomes They are key to the division of cells
during mitosis.
8. Nucleus It controls all the activities of the cell.

SIMILARITIES FOUND IN BOTH PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

Both plant and animal cells have the following features in common;
i) Nucleus
ii) Golgi bodies
iii) Mitochondria
iv) Endoplasmic reticulum
v) Ribosome
vi) Lysosome
vii) Vacuoles

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
1. Presence of cellulose cell wall. Absence of cellulose cell wall.

2. Presence of chloroplast Absence of chloroplast.

3. Large central vacuole present.
Small vacuoles may be present or
absent.
4. Absence of centrioles. Presence of centrioles
5. Starch granules present Glycogen granules present.
6. Cytoplasm less dense and Cytoplasm dense, and fills cell
found along the peripheral of the cell completely.

THE CELL THEORY

The cell theory is one of the basic concept in biology. It was formulated from the
findings and ideas of several scientists.
The cell theory was propounded as a result of the findings of Matthias, Theodor
and Rudolf.
In summary cell theory is stated as follows;
1. The cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
2. All living organisms are made of cells
3. All existing cells come from the reproduction of the previously existing
cells.
4. A cell contains information for its structural and functional development in
its nucleic acids. This information is passed down from parent to offspring
cells.
THE PLANT CELL
THE ANIMAL CELL

WEEK 4
FORMS IN WHICH CELLS EXIST
The cell is the simplest unit of a living organism which can exist independently.
A cell is able to exhibit all the characteristics of living things such as ; nutrition,
respiration, movement, excretion, growth, irritability and reproduction. They have
cytoplasmic structures named organelles which serve as organs within the cell.
Cells of living organisms exist in four different forms, they are ;
1. As single and free- living organism
2. As a colony
3. As a filament
4. As part of a living organism.
1. As single and free living organisms :
These are organisms which possess only one cell and are capable of living freely
on their own. Each organism, even though it has only one cell can carry out all the
life processes such as feeding, excretion, reproduction etc. Common examples of
single and free- living organisms are; Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium,
Chlamydomonas etc.
2. As a Colony :
Some organisms are made up of similar cells which are joined or massed together
but they cannot be differentiated from each other. The cells are connected by
cytoplasmic strands. All the cells in the colony function independently , each cell
has flagella, they beat in a co-ordinated manner so that the colony is able to move
in a definite direction. Common examples of colonial organisms are; volvox,
sponges, pandorina etc.
3. As a filament :
Certain cells are organised into filaments in which identical cells are joined end to
end to form unbranched filaments. Each cell functions as an independent living
cell, it can divide transversely into two and grow, this is how the filament grows in
length indefinitely Such organisms are multicellular and therefore exist as filament.
Examples of filamentous organisms are; spirogyra, zygnema , oscillateria etc.

4. As part of a multicellular organism :

Most multicellular organisms are made up of groups of cells which are similar in
shape and structure to form tissue, each cell depends on the other for efficient
performance. These cells form parts of living organisms example is the cheek cells
which form a protective epithelial tissue of the mouth of a man, epithelial tissue of
leaves.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FILAMENTOUS AND COLONIAL
ORGANISMS
COLONIAL ORGANISM FILAMENTOUS ORGANISM
1. The identical cells form a round The identical cells are held together
mass and are held together by end-to –end by intercellular walls to
cytoplasmic strands. form a linear structure.

2. There is absence of intercellular Presence of intercellular wall.

wall .
3. Cells are dependent Cells are independent on one another
physiologically on one another. physiologically.
4. There is division of labour. There is no division of labour.
5. In some colonial organisms such In filamentous organisms such as
as Volvox, Eudorina, there is cilia for spirogyra and zygnema, there are no
locomotion structures for locomotion

DIAGRAMS OF UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS.

DIAGRAM OF SPIROGYRA
 WEEK 5

THE CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Living cells are always surrounded by watery environment. This may be ;

1. The freshwater or salt water in which unicellular organisms live. Or

2. The intercellular fluid that bathes the body cells of higher animals.
Materials flow between the cell and its environment by two biophysical
processes namely;
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
DIFFUSION
Diffusion is defined as the movement of molecules or ions (tiny particles of a
substance or matter) from a region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration until an equilibrium is reached (or they are evenly
distributed). Diffusion occurs in matter i.e. anything that has mass and
occupies space including all living cells. Matter can exist in three states; as
solid, liquid and gas.
FACTORS AFFECTING DIFFUSION
1. STATE OF MATTER: rate of diffusion is faster in gases than in liquid, the
ions or molecules in gases are freer than in liquid and therefore faster.

2. MOLECULAR SIZE: the smaller the molecules, the faster the rate of
diffusion while the larger the size of the molecules the slower the rate of
diffusion.
3. TEMPERATURE: high temperature increases the rate of diffusion. The
higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion.
4. CONCENTRATION GRADIENT: this is the difference in the concentration
in the two regions before diffusion. The greater the difference in the
concentration of the molecules, the greater the rate of diffusion.
EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE DIFFUSION IN LIQUID
AIM: To demonstrate Diffusion in liquid
MATERIALS REQUIRED: beaker, distilled water, pipette, and potassium
permanganate (KMn04) solution.
PROCEDURE: Take a beaker and fill it with distilled water. Use pipette to
deliver small quantity of potassium permanganate solution gently at the
bottom of the beaker and leave it to stand for few minutes.
OBSERVATION: The purple colour of the potassium permanganate solution
starts to spread outside. Finally, the colour spread throughout the water
medium so that the water have the same shade of purple colour.
CONCLUSION: The purple colour of KMnO4 are evenly distributed i.e.
there is an equilibrium. Hence, diffusion has taken place.

DEMONSTRATION OF DIFFUSION IN LIQUID

DEMONSTRATION OF DIFFUSION IN GASES
IMPORTANCE OF DIFFUSION
IN FLOWERING PLANTS
1. Movement of carbon (IV) oxide through the stomata of the leaves
during respiration.
2. There is movement of carbon (IV) oxide through the stomata into the
leaves during photosynthesis.
3. Water vapour leaves the surface of the leaf during transpiration.

IN ANIMALS
1. There is intake of oxygen or nutrients from mother to foetus (embryo)
through the placenta.
2. Gaseous exchange in mammalian lungs during respiration occurs
through diffusion.
3. Amoeba takes in oxygen and gets rid of carbon (IV) oxide by diffusion.
4. Movement of carbon IV oxide from the lung into the air sac occurs
through diffusion.
OSMOSIS
A living cell is bound by cell membrane. This cell membrane is selectively
permeable i.e. It allows water and some certain solute molecules and ions to
pass through it. As a result, the cell membrane regulates the movement of
materials between the cell and its environment.
Osmosis is defined as the movement of water molecules from the region of
dilute or weaker concentration to a region of concentrated or stronger
solution through a selectively permeable membrane until an equilibrium is
reached or attained i.e. Until the concentration of the solutions is the same on
both sides.
CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR OSMOSIS TO TAKE PLACE
For osmosis to take place, the following conditions are necessary;
1. Presence of a selectively permeable membrane e.g. Yam tissue, pawpaw
tissue.
2. Presence of weaker and stronger solutions (concentration gradient).
A living cell may find itself in any one of the following media;
1. Hypertonic medium (solution)
2. Hypotonic medium (solution)
3. Isotonic medium (solution)
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION: when the fluid surrounding the cell is
more concentrated (higher concentration) than the inside of the cell, the
medium is said to be hypertonic.
NOTE: There is a net movement of water molecules out of the cell to
its surrounding. This is known as EXOSMOSIS. It causes the cell to
shrink.
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION: When the fluid surrounding the cell is less
concentrated than the cell, the surrounding fluid is said to be hypotonic
to the content of the cell. There is a net movement of water molecules
from the surrounding into the cell, it causes the cell to swell and
eventually rupture. This is known as endosmosis.
ISOTONIC SOLUTION: When the surrounding fluid and the cell
content have the same concentration. Hence, they are said to be
ISOTONIC. There is no net movement of water molecules in or out of
the cell.
To survive and function well, the living cell and the surrounding fluid
that bathes it must be ISOTONIC or be able to maintain an osmotic
balance. Endosmosis and Exosmosis can lead to death in animals.
EXPERIMENT SHOWING OSMOSIS IN LIVING TISSUE

DEMONSTRATION OF OSMOSIS IN THE LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE OSMOSIS USING NON-

LIVING MATERIAL
AIM: To demonstrate osmosis using a non-living material.
MATERIALS REQUIRED: two thistle funnel, beakers, sugar solution,
water, cellophane paper.
PROCEDURE: pour equal volume (quantity) of water into the two
beakers, then cover the bottom of the thistle funnels with cellophane
paper (selectively permeable membrane). Then pour sugar solution into
thistle funnel A and water into thistle funnel B (control experiment) and
mark their levels. Then immerse the two funnels into the beakers
containing water. Allow the experiment to remain for 2-3 hours.
 OBSERVATION: At the end of the experiment, the volume of sugar
solution will rise in the thistle funnel A while the water level in the
beaker will reduce. At the same time, the volume of water in funnel B
and beaker remain at the same level.
CONCLUSION: The rise of sugar solution in the thistle funnel A and
decrease in the water level in the beaker show that osmosis has taken
place.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS
DIFFUSION OSMOSIS
1. Diffusion occurs in gases and Osmosis occurs in liquid only.
liquids. Semi-permeable
2. Semi-permeable membrane is membrane is required.
not required.
3. Diffusion occurs in living and It occurs naturally in living
non-living organisms. organisms.

OSMOSIS IN PLANTS
Plant cells are made up of cytoplasm and nucleus which are
surrounded with cell membrane and the cell wall. The cell wall is tough
and fairly elastic, it is freely permeable to all molecules and ions. The
cell membrane, however, is selectively permeable. The plant cell is made
up of large vacuole which is made up of cell sap (cell sap is a complex
mixture of solutes of high concentration). This causes a net movement
of water into the cell from the surrounding called endosmosis.

When endosmosis occurs, it causes the cell to swell. The cell, however,
does not rupture because of the cell wall which stretches and does not
break.
Osmosis plays the following roles in plants:
1. The opening and closing of stomata
2. The movement of water from the soil into plants via root hairs

3. The enlargement of plant cells.

 4. The turgidity of plant cell.
NOTE: The following terms are important when discussing the process of
Osmosis in plants;
1. Turgidity
2. Plasmolysis
3. Flaccidity

PLASMOLYSIS
Plasmolysis is the outward movement of water from living plant cell
when placed in a hypertonic solution. Plasmolysis occurs in plant cell.
This involves the outward movement of water from the cell which
results in pulling away of the cytoplasm from the cell membrane or cell
wall, as a result the cytoplasm of the cell shrinks and the whole cell
collapses, the cell is said to have been plasmolysed. This eventually leads
to death or wilting of the plant.
The process of plasmolysis is demonstrated in the laboratory using
spirogyra filament placed in salt solution.

TURGIDITY
Turgidity is a process in which plant cell surrounded by a hypotonic or
weaker solution absorbs water from its surrounding to a point where it
is fully stretched or becomes turgid.
The content of a plant cell is more concentrated than its surrounding
fluid (the cytoplasm and cell sap in the vacuole which contains sugar,
salts and protein increase the concentration of the plant cell). This
causes water molecules to pass through the cell membrane into the cell
by osmosis, this inflow causes the cell to stretch and become turgid but
the cell wall is able to resist this outward pressure therefore preventing
the cell from bursting.
HAEMOLYSIS
Haemolysis is a process of osmosis in animal red blood cell. It occurs
when the red blood cell is placed in a weaker or hypotonic solution,
water molecules enter into the cell , the cell gets swollen ( becomes
turgid) and may eventually burst. Haemolysis may result in death of
the red blood cell.
In a similar condition, when a red blood cell is placed in a
hypertonic solution, water molecules move out of the red blood cell
causing the cell to shrink. This condition is known as CRENATION.
DIAGRAMS SHOWING HAEMOLYSIS IN RED BLOOD CELLS
 WEEK 8
REPRODUCTION
MEANING OF REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the process in which living organisms give rise to new
individuals of the same species. Reproduction allows continuity of life, organisms
of the same species interbreed among themselves to produce young individuals
similar to themselves i.e. of the same kind.
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
There are two main types of reproduction, namely;
1. Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction is the type of reproduction in which new organisms are
produced from a single parent without the production of gametes. Since there is
no fusion of gametes in asexual reproduction, the daughter cells produced are
genetically identical to the parent cell.
ADVANTAGE OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Organisms exhibiting asexual reproduction can produce rapidly, and so colonise
favourable environment within a short period of time.
FORMS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
The most common forms of asexual reproduction are;
1. Spore formation
2. Binary fission
3. Budding
4. Vegetative propagation
1. Spore formation: spores are vegetative units formed by some lower
organisms (unicellular organisms) such as; bacteria and fungi. Most fungi
e.g. bread mould, penicilium, Rhizopus produce numerous spores in their
sporangia.
SPORANGIUM

2. Binary fission: binary fission is the simplest form of asexual

reproduction in unicellular organisms in which a single cell (parent cell)
divides into two equal parts to produce two daughter cells, each
daughter cell can exist by itself. Binary fission is common in bacteria and
protists like Amoeba, paramecium.
3. Budding: in budding, the offspring develops as an outgrowth of the
parent to form a BUD. The bud is formed on the external or internal
surface of the parent. Internal bud is found in organisms such as;
sponges. The buds are released or detached when the parent dies.
External buds are found in hydra, coral polyps, and yeasts. The bud
breaks off from the parent without causing any harm or injury on the
parent to live an independent life. Budding is also found in flatworm,
tapeworm, yeast etc.
4. Vegetative propagation: this form of asexual reproduction is mostly
found in higher plants. It usually involves the growth of a new plant
(daughter plant) from any part of a plant other than the seeds. Many
flowering plants reproduce vegetative by means of underground storage
organs such as; rhizomes, bulbs, corms, tubers and leaves. The parts
involved must be able to produce all the organs of a complete plant,
namely roots, stems, leaves, and flowers. They form perennating organs
(i.e. they enable the plant to survive from one growing season to the
 next). Examples of perennating organs are; stolon, rhizomes, tubers,
bulbs and corms. They lie dormant (inactive) in the soil during
unfavourable season.

ORGANS OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION AND PERRENATION

NAME EXAMPLE DESCRIPTION

1. Bulbil Bryophyllum Buds( perennating organ)

(leaves)

2. Bulb Onion, garlic, lily. Underground condensed

shoot with short stem
(perennating organ)

3. Runner Sweet potato, some Weak stem that creep on

grasses soil surface( perennating
organ)

4. Sucker Pineapple, banana, Short underground

plantain horizontal branches
ending with terminal
buds.
 NAME EXAMPLE DESCRIPTION

5. Rhizome Ginger, canna Underground

lily, grasses, horizontal
ferns branching
stems with
lateral and
terminal buds
and scale leaves

6. Corm Cocoyam, Underground

caladium short, swollen
stem bases that
grow vertically.

7. Stem tuber Yam, Irish Swollen tip of

potato underground
branches

TYPES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Vegetative propagation is sub- divided into two, namely:
1. Natural vegetative propagation
2. Artificial vegetative propagation
ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION.
Farmers and horticulturists use vegetative reproductive methods to grow plants
that are exactly like the parent. This method is referred to as ARTIFICIAL
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION. They do so by planting pieces of perenating organs
like tubers and rhizome.
Examples of artificial propagation include;
1. Cutting
2. Marcotting
3. Layering
4. Bud grafting (budding)
5. stem Grafting

ASSIGNMENT
1. State (i) 5 advantages and
(ii) 5 disadvantages of vegetative propagation.
(WASSCE June, 2000).
2. State 4 differences between sexual and asexual reproduction.
3. Explain briefly sexual reproduction in Rhizopus. (WASSCE 2015).

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction is the type of reproduction which involves the fusion of two different sex cells
(gametes) which usually come from two different parents.

Sex cells also known as GAMETES are formed by a type of cell division called MEIOSIS.

TYPES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. Conjugation

2. Fusion of gametes

1. Conjugation: In some unicellular organisms, sexual reproduction is very simple. The whole
organism may act as a gamete. This may pair with similar whole cell and exchange nuclei. This type of
sexual reproduction is known as CONJUGATION. This type of sexual reproduction is found in organisms
such as;

i) Paramecium
ii) Spirogyra

iii) Chlamydomonas

iv) Rhizopus

v) Mucor

2) FUSION OF GAMETES.

This type of sexual reproduction is found in higher plants and animals. Fusion of gametes is
the union of the haploid male and female gametes to produce diploid organism called zygote.
This process is called fertilization.

In higher animals, gametes are formed in special organs called gonads. The male gametes
called spermatozoa are produced in the testes by meiosis (a type of cell division). This process of
sperm formation is called spermatogenesis. Also, the female gametes called ova (eggs) are
formed by meiosis in a process called oogenesis.

Structure of Gametes

Mammalian gametes are:

1. Spermatozoa ( sperm cell)

2. Ovum ( egg cell)

They are produced by the process called Gametogenesis.

STRUCTURE OF THE SPERM CELL

The sperm cell is made up of three major parts, the head, a middle piece and tail :

1. The acrosome: this is located on the head region. It contains lytic enzymes which help to
dissolve the egg membrane during fertilization.

2. Flagellum: located at the tail region. It helps in propelling ( movement)of the sperm cell
MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES

FUSION OF GAMETES
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. Gametes are formed no gamete formed

2. it involves fusion of male no fusion of gametes

And female gametes

3. Two parents involved only one parent is needed.

4.Offspring show new offspring are identical.

Variation.

5. Less rapid of means of rapid means of producing offspring.

Producing offspring

6. Zygote is formed. No zygote formed.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system comprises of the following organs and tissues:

i) Testes

ii) Seminiferous tubules

iii) Epididymis

iv) Vas deferens ( sperm duct)

v) Seminal vesicle

vi) Prostate gland

vii) Cowper’s gland

viii) Urethra.

Testes (testis-singular): All male mammals have two testes inside two sacs of skin(scrotal sacs). In man,
the sacs form a scrotum which encloses the two testes. In mammals, the testes are found outside the
body cavity so as to provide a cooler environment than the body. Such environment enhances rapid
production of sperm.

Functions

i. The testes produce the sperms.

They also produce the male sex hormone (testosterone) which aids the development of
secondary sexual characters.

ii) Seminiferous tubules: these tubules are located in the testes.

FUNCTION: These are points where sperm cells are produced.

iii) Epididymis: it is also found in the testes.

FUNCTION: it collects and stores sperms temporarily until maturity.

iv) Vas deferens: this is the sperm duct. It leads from the epididymis to the seminal vesicle

FUNCTION: It conducts sperms from epididymis to seminal vesicle.

v) Seminal vesicle: it is a small sac. It stores sperms until they are ejaculated. It also secretes
seminal fluid.
 vi) Prostate gland: this gland secretes seminal fluid which activates the sperms.

vi) Cowper’s gland: it is located close to the prostate gland. It helps to increase the PH of the
female reproductive medium which is mostly acidic.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system is made up of the following organs and tissues:

1. Oviduct (fallopian tube)

2. Ovaries

3. Uterus (womb)

4. Vagina

5. Cervix

6. Vulva

7. Clitoris.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction is the type of reproduction which involves the fusion of two different sex cells
(gametes) which usually come from two different parents.

Sex cells also known as GAMETES are formed by a type of cell division called MEIOSIS.

TYPES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

3. Conjugation

4. Fusion of gametes

1. Conjugation: In some unicellular organisms, sexual reproduction is very simple. The whole
organism may act as a gamete. This may pair with similar whole cell and exchange nuclei. This type of
sexual reproduction is known as CONJUGATION. This type of sexual reproduction is found in organisms
such as;

vii) Paramecium

viii) Spirogyra

ix) Chlamydomonas

x) Rhizopus
 xi) Mucor

2) FUSION OF GAMETES.

This type of sexual reproduction is found in higher plants and animals. Fusion of gametes is
the union of the haploid male and female gametes to produce diploid organism called zygote.
This process is called fertilization.

In higher animals, gametes are formed in special organs called gonads. The male gametes
called spermatozoa are produced in the testes by meiosis (a type of cell division). This process of
sperm formation is called spermatogenesis. Also, the female gametes called ova (eggs) are
formed by meiosis in a process called oogenesis.

Structure of Gametes

Mammalian gametes are:

3. Spermatozoa ( sperm cell)

4. Ovum ( egg cell)

They are produced by the process called Gametogenesis.

STRUCTURE OF THE SPERM CELL

The sperm cell is made up of three major parts, the head, a middle piece and tail :

3. The acrosome: this is located on the head region. It contains lytic enzymes which help to
dissolve the egg membrane during fertilization.

4. Flagellum: located at the tail region. It helps in propelling ( movement)of the sperm cell

MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES

FUSION OF GAMETES
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. Gametes are formed no gamete formed

2. it involves fusion of male no fusion of gametes

And female gametes

3. Two parents involved only one parent is needed.

4.Offspring show new offspring are identical.

Variation.

5. Less rapid of means of rapid means of producing offspring.

Producing offspring

6. Zygote is formed. No zygote formed.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

2. MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system comprises of the following organs and tissues:

ix) Testes

x) Seminiferous tubules

xi) Epididymis

xii) Vas deferens ( sperm duct)

xiii) Seminal vesicle

xiv) Prostate gland

xv) Cowper’s gland

xvi) Urethra.

Testes (testis-singular): All male mammals have two testes inside two sacs of skin(scrotal sacs). In man,
the sacs form a scrotum which encloses the two testes. In mammals, the testes are found outside the
body cavity so as to provide a cooler environment than the body. Such environment enhances rapid
production of sperm.

Functions

ii. The testes produce the sperms.

They also produce the male sex hormone (testosterone) which aids the development of
secondary sexual characters.

ii) Seminiferous tubules: these tubules are located in the testes.

FUNCTION: These are points where sperm cells are produced.

iii) Epididymis: it is also found in the testes.

FUNCTION: it collects and stores sperms temporarily until maturity.

iv) Vas deferens: this is the sperm duct. It leads from the epididymis to the seminal vesicle

FUNCTION: It conducts sperms from epididymis to seminal vesicle.

v) Seminal vesicle: it is a small sac. It stores sperms until they are ejaculated. It also secretes
seminal fluid.
 vi) Prostate gland: this gland secretes seminal fluid which activates the sperms.

xii) Cowper’s gland: it is located close to the prostate gland. It helps to increase the PH of the
female reproductive medium which is mostly acidic.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system is made up of the following organs and tissues:

8. Oviduct (fallopian tube)

9. Ovaries

10. Uterus (womb)

11. Vagina

12. Cervix

13. Vulva

14. Clitoris.