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Single Screw Extrusion of Natural Fibre Reinforced Thermoplastics (NFRTP)

Article  in  International Polymer Processing Journal of the Polymer Processing Society · March 2003
DOI: 10.3139/217.1727

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 COMPOUNDING/SCREW EXTRUSION
F. G. Torres*, B. Ochoa and E. Machicao
Polymers and Composites Group, Catholic University of Peru, Lima, Peru
Single Screw Extrusion of Natural Fibre
Reinforced Thermoplastics (NFRTP)
Study of the Material Transport Processes
International Polymer Processing downloaded from www.hanser-elibrary.com by Kungliga Tekniska on August 24, 2015
Natural fibre reinforced thermoplastics are usually processed
in twin screw extruders. The present work studies the single
screw extrusion process for different systems of natural fibre re-
inforced thermoplastics. For this study different polymer-fibre
systems have been characterised in terms of the material prop-
erties that are relevant to the processing behaviour of these ma-
terials. The extrusion process has been investigated using an
open-barrel single screw extruder. This equipment can be
stopped at any point in operation, cooled down and opened in
order to study the material transport processes that take place
inside the extruder. The polymer matrices used in this study
have been mainly polyethylene and polypropylene (with MFIs
For personal use only.
varying from 0.3 to 4). Fibres including jute, sisal, and cabuya
have been used as discrete reinforcements of a length of 5 to
10 mm.
The experiments presented here study the transport pro-
cesses during single screw extrusion with special emphasis on
the bubble formation mechanisms. The bubble formation pro-
cess has been studied in terms of the variation in the initial
fibre dispersion at the entrance of the feeding zone of the extru-
der. A relationship between solids conveying, plastication and
bubble formation has been proposed considering the different
typical cases occurring in the single screw extrusion of
NFRTPs. The use of coupling and dispersion agents has been
studied in terms of its relationship to bubble formation and to
the final quality of the extrudates produced.
Finally, morphological characterisation techniques have
been adapted to understand the structure-property relation-
ships in these materials during the extrusion process.
1 Introduction
Natural plant fibres or biofibres have been used in the past as a
reinforcing material for different types of matrices [1, 2]. In re-
cent years attention has been paid to their use as a reinforcing
material for thermoplastics. Particularly the automotive indus-
tries have shown interest in the advantages that this type of
fibre – reinforced systems can provide [1, 2]. The advantages
* Mail address: F. G. Torres, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering,
Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru, Av. Universitaria Cdra.
18. s/n, Lima 32, Peru
Intern. Polymer Processing XVIII (2003) 1  Hanser Publishers, Munich
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of biofibres over traditional fibre reinforcements, such as glass
fibres are: low cost, low density (good specific properties), re-
duced wear in processing equipment, high toughness, biode-
gradability, “ecological friendliness” (since they can be pro-
duced from renewable resources). Natural plant fibres can be
classified, considering their origin, as follows: a) leaf: sisal,
pineaple leaf fibre (PALF), banana leaf fibre; b) bast: flax, ra-
mie, hemp, jute; c) seed: cotton; d) fruit: coconut, husk. The
work presented here is part of a long term research project
started at Polymers and Composites Group studying different
manufacturing routes for a variety of natural fibre – polymer
systems.
It is well known that polymer-wood composites tend to be
processed using twin screw extruders, taking advantage of their
improved compounding capabilities with regard to single
screw extruders. Wood flour, however, does not give in general
considerable improvements in mechanical properties to ther-
moplastics. Moreover, in most cases, it is considered a filler
which produces a decrease in the strength of the unreinforced
polymer. Discrete natural fibres, even at low volume concen-
trations, may have a reasonable reinforcement effect on com-
mon polymers [1, 2, 3]. Unreinforced commodity plastics such
as polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE) tend to be pro-
cessed with single screw extruders. Therefore the goal of this
project is to develop a manufacturing route that allows natural
fibre reinforced thermoplastics to be successfully processed in
single screw extruders.
Further work is currently being undertaken, particularly try-
ing to improve and control the fibre-matrix “interphase” re-
gion, and to develop other commercial processing techniques
as well as new reinforcing systems.
2 Processing of Natural Fibre Reinforced Thermoplastics
(NFRTP)
Although many studies have been carried out to assess the dif-
ferent mechanical and physical properties of NFRTP [4 to 8],
very few studies actually deal with the particular subject of pro-
cessing these composites. In order to develop a manufacturing
route for NFRTPs, it is necessary to study the processability
of each of their components. It is also important to consider
the possibility of treating the fibres in order to obtain better
processing and final properties.
33
 F. G. Torres et al.: Single Screw Extrusion of NFRTP
2.1 Processability of NFRTP
As mentioned above, the goal of the present work is to adapt
conventional thermoplastics processing techniques such as ex-
trusion to natural fibre reinforced composites. However, there
are some particular processability problems that arise when
working with these materials:
– Natural fibres are in general hydrophilic. Their moisture
content reaches 8 to 12.6 % [2].
– Most natural fibres degrade at about 180 to 200 °C [1, 2].
– As in the paper industry, formation of flocs or clumps tends
to be a problem NFRTPs, resulting in a decrease of the rein-
forcement efficiency of the composite.
2.2 Coupling and Dispersion Agents
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Various treatments are used to improve the matrix-fibre adhe-
sion in natural fibre reinforced composites. Currently, this step
is considered critical in the development of those materials.
As mentioned before, the main disadvantages of natural fi-
bres are their low permissible processing temperatures, their
tendency to the formation of clumps, and their hydrophilic nat-
ure (moisture absorption) [2, 4]. The most frequently natural fi-
bres used are: sisal, jute, flax and wood fibres. The methods de-
scribed here have been applied mainly to these natural fibres.
Some of the commonly used general fibre treatments are de-
waxing, acetylation and alkali treatment. There are also some
For personal use only.
methods that modify the fibres surface. These can be physical
or chemical.
2.2.1 Dewaxing
Dewaxing (defatting) is normally used before any treatment.
Oxidizing agents such as sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypo-
chlorite, or hydrogen peroxide are used in order to remove the
dirt and oil that industrial natural fibres tend to carry on their
surfaces [2].
2.2.2 Acetylation
Acetylation involves the introduction of acetyl groups in the
hydroxyl (OH) groups of the fibres cellulose improving their
hydrophobicity.
2.2.3 Alkali Treatment
The alkali treatment of jute fibres produces the extraction of
lignin and hemicellulose. This treatment has been applied to si-
sal fibres, resulting in higher tensile strength [5]. The influence
of the alkali treatment on the water exposure resistance of the
composite has been reported in the literature for jute-epoxy re-
sin and flax-epoxy resin composites [6, 7]. Lower tensile
strengths were reported for jute-epoxy resin composite and
slightly higher tensile strengths for flax-epoxy composites.
Furthermore, the dynamic strength of the composites was im-
proved by the use of alkali treated fibres [6, 7].
34
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Alkali treatment for jute – biodegradable polyester amide
(jute-BAK composites) composites also showed improvements
in the mechanical properties of the composites when compared
to untreated jute fibre composites [8].
2.2.4 Surface Modification – Physical Methods
The physical methods include corona and cold plasma electric
discharge. These treatments change the structural and surface
properties of the fibre [9].
2.2.5 Surface Modification – Chemical Methods
The main chemical method used in the surface modification
of natural fibres is chemical coupling [10]. In this group of
methods the coupling agent forms chemical bonds between
the cellulose in the fibre and the polymer matrix [11]. Other
chemical methods involve the change of surface tension and
the impregnation of fibres [5]. The change of surface tension
is related to the hydrophobicity of the fibre. The use of stea-
ric acid that hydrophobizes the fibres and improves their
dispersion is an example [4, 5]. Other chemical coupling
methods include graft co-polymerization, treatment with iso-
cyanates, and the use of triazine and organosilanes as cou-
pling agents.
2.2.6 Graft Co-polymerisation
Graft co-polymerisation is a complex but effective method to
improve the matrix-fibre bonding. This method involves the
treatment of the cellulose in the fibre with a suitable solution
of a vinyl monomer, acrylonitrile, methlyl methacrylate or
polystyrene [2, 5, 8], then followed by a co-polymerisation re-
action. The final result is an interfacial agent on the fibre sur-
face that improves the matrix-fibre bonding [2].
The use of polypropylene – maleic anhydride copolymer
(MAH-PP) in the graft co-polymerisation treatment of jute
fibre-polypropylene composites has been reported frequently
in the literature. The result is a modified fibre surface with bet-
ter wettability [4, 11, 12].
Methyl methacrylate (MMA) and acrylonitrile (AN) graft-
ing treatment of jute – biodegradable polyester amide (jute-
BAK) composites also improves the mechanical properties of
such materials (between 10 % and 30 % of improvement rela-
tive to composites with untreated fibres) [8].
2.2.7 Silane Coupling Agents
Silane treatments have also been applied to investigate poly-
mer-wood interface. The most favourable results have been ob-
tained using vinyltrimethoxysilane after alkali treatment of the
fibres, which together produced a considerable improvement of
the interfacial bond strength [13].
Intern. Polymer Processing XVIII (2003) 1
 F. G. Torres et al.: Single Screw Extrusion of NFRTP

3 Characterisation of the Relevant Material Properties

3.1 Materials

The natural fibres used in the experiments were: jute, sisal, co-
conut, and chonta. Chonta (Bactris spp., Euterpe spp., or Astro- Fig. 1. From left to right, chonta fibres (before and after 20 min degra-
caryum chonta) is a tree found in the Peruvian Amazonia, dation test), coconut fibres (before and after 20 min degradation tests)
(20x)
which possesses a highly fibrous wood structure. Fibre rovings
and tows of jute and sisal were chopped to produce bundles of 5
to 10 mm and fed to the extruder blended with the polymer pel-
lets. In the case of chonta wood fibres, these were chopped to 4 Single Screw Extrusion of Natural Fibre Reinforced
about 1 mm. The polymer matrices used were in all cases Thermoplastics
HDPE with MFI values (190 °C/2.16 kg) in the range 0.1 to
0.5 (extrusion grades) and PP with an MFI of 4. 4.1 Description of the Process and Equipment
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An extrusion line for the production of profiles has been used

3.2 Morphological Characterisation
The morphological characterisation methodology for LGF
composites developed by Torres et al. [14, 15] has been
adapted to natural fibre composites. SEM, and optical stereo-
scopic microscopy has been used to characterise the fibres and
the composites.
3.3 Water Retention of the Fibres
Water retention tests were carried out following ASTM
For personal use only.
for the experiments presented here (Figs. 2 and 3). The main
component of the extrusion line is a single screw extruder built
and designed in-house with a 25 mm polyolefin-type screw
(L/D 24) and an open barrel facility. The extruder can be
cooled down at any point during its operation, and then the bar-
rel can be split into two halves (see Fig. 4) so that the material
contained between screw and barrel can be studied. The feed-
ing zone in the barrel is smooth. The extruder has four heating
zones regulated with independent PID controllers. A circular
die is attached to the extruder and used to produce rods of dia-
meter 10 mm. Following the extruder, there is a calibration
tank, in which a brass calibration sleeve has been fitted, so that

D2402-90. The results for the different fibres tested are re-
ported in Table 1. As can be seen from Table 1, different types
of jute fibres show different values of water retention. This is
an indication of the complications that arise when using natural
products as reinforcements. Coconut fibres show the highest
percentage of water retention.
the extrudate can be shaped and cooled down to its desired final
form. At the end of the line there is a haul-off which sets up the
line speed. No feed back control was used between extruder
and haul-off.

Type of fibre Water retention

%

Jute (dark colour, textile) 41.7

Jute (white colour, roving) 56.1
Coconut fibre 58.9

Table 1. Water retention for different natural fibres Fig. 2. Scheme of the extrusion line for the production of natural fibre
reinforced thermoplastic profiles

3.4 Thermal Degradation of the Fibres

The fibres were placed in a temperature controlled oven using

an inert gas atmosphere. The temperatures were varied in the
range 180 to 200 °C, which corresponds to the typical proces-
sing temperatures for thermoplastics in single screw extrusion.
The samples were placed in the oven for: 5, 10, 15 and
20 min, which are estimates of the average residence times of
the extruder used in the experiments (at different speeds).
Some of the fibres, particularly coconut, showed extensive de-
gradation, as can be verified from the pictures shown in Fig. 1.
However, chonta fibres showed a much better resistance to heat
degradation than jute, sisal and coconut. These results were Fig. 3. Extrusion line for the production of natural fibre reinforced
consistent with the ones found from the extrusion experiments. thermoplastic profiles

Intern. Polymer Processing XVIII (2003) 1 35

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 F. G. Torres et al.: Single Screw Extrusion of NFRTP
Fig. 4. Extruder showing the “open-barrel” facility
4.2 Study of the Process – Experiments
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4.2.1 Materials
The polymer matrices used in this study have been mainly
polyethylene and polypropylene (with MFIs varying from 0.3
A) B) C)
For personal use only.
Fig. 5. Natural fibres used in the extrusion experiments, A: sisal fibres
(10 ×), B: cabuya fibres (10 ×), C: jute fibres (10 ×)
Fig. 6. Left: extruder with barrel opened showing the material, inside, right: plastic composite
extracted from the channels of the extruder screw next to it
36
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to 4). Fibres including jute, sisal, and cabuya have been used
as discrete reinforcements of a length of 5 to 10 mm (Fig. 5).
Cabuya is a vegetable fibre native to South America (it mainly
grows in Peru and Ecuador) and has a pretty similar appearance
to sisal, but shows a higher stiffness.
4.2.2 Conditioning of the Materials
The fibres were treated following some of the procedures de-
scribed in Section 2.2. Particularly, stearic acid, alcohol solu-
tions and dewaxing were used for improving the fibre disper-
sion. In general, stearic acid applied to sisal and cabuya fibres
seemed to produce the best dispersion among the fibres. Other
surface modification treatments and the use of coupling agents
were also tried out, however the results did not show much in-
fluence on the bubble formation processes. In all cases the fi-
bres were always placed in an alcohol or hypochlorite solution
for 24 h in order to remove the processing lubricants (defatting,
dewaxing) which are typical in this type of fibres.
4.2.3 Processing Conditions
The extrusion temperatures have been chosen so that fibre de-
gradation would be minimised [3]. Temperature profiles of
160 to 220 °C have been used. The screw speed was in the
range 40 to 70 min during the experiments. Cooling water from
the mains at 18 °C was used for the calibration bath. No va-
cuum was used for aiding the calibration process. Haul-off
speed was set in the range 0.5 to 5 m/min.
5 Study of Plastication and Bubble
Formation in Single Screw Extrusion
The experiments reported here started
with taking the extruder to operating con-
ditions. Then the extruder was stopped
abruptly and cooled down. With the
equipment cool, the barrel was opened
and the material contained inside was ob-
served (Fig. 6). Only visual analysis was
performed. Photographs were taken
along the screw. The tests were per-
formed for different materials, with and
without treatment of the fibres and for
different operating conditions.
Fig. 7 shows a composition obtained
from pictures taken at different positions
along the screw. It shows the way the fi-
bres are transported along the screw
channel, and the variations in fibre dis-
persion, as well as the evolution of bub-
bles in the channel.
The analysis of the solids conveying
region is particularly interesting. For all
cases where large bubbles had been
found in the final extrudates, these ap-
peared to have been formed in the feed-
Intern. Polymer Processing XVIII (2003) 1
 F. G. Torres et al.: Single Screw Extrusion of NFRTP
ing section. Fig. 8 shows a typical example of fibre clumping in
the case of sisal fibres and PP (5 % w/w). The clumping of the
fibres, especially at the walls of the channel, tend to produce
large voids which are transported all along the screw channel.
These voids, which appear in the extrudates cross sections can-
not be attributed to moisture in the fibres. This can be verified
by following the transport of the large bubbles formed in the
feeding zone along the screw channel (Fig. 7).
Fig. 9 shows a typical case of a large bubble (void) that has
been transported along the extruder channel. As can be seen
from Fig. 9 a melt film clearly confines the bubbles within the
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limits of the channel cross section. At this stage, the fibres
show an acceptable degree of dispersion.
On the other hand, Fig. 10, presents the case in which the fi-
bres show good dispersion in the polymer matrix with no voids
like the ones shown in Figs. 8 and 9. This corresponds to the
metering zone of the screw channel, and only small bubbles
For personal use only.
Fig. 8. Sisal fibres clumping in the solids conveying region
Fig. 9. View of the region between the solids conveying zone and the
compression zone
Fig. 10. View showing good fibre dispersion with small bubbles in the
metering section
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Fig. 7. Transported fibre reinforced material
along the extruder screw
can be appreciated. These bubbles might be due to remaining
moisture in the fibres or to their natural hydrophilic behaviour,
although in this case, this has been considerably reduced by
pre-treating the fibres with stearic acid. Some of the bubbles
might also come from a large void produced in the feeding
zone, which has been later reduced due to the shearing action
of the screw. However, the experiments have shown that when
large voids are present in the feeding zone, these produce large
central voids in the extrudates.
5.1 Mechanisms of Bubble Formation
Comparing the results from the experiments shown above, it
can be inferred that both fibre dispersion and fibre moisture
have an effect on the formation of bubbles in the single screw
extrusion of natural fibre reinforced composites. Most un-
treated fibres tend to form clumps which make the solids con-
veying process unstable, leading to the formation of bubbles.
Good fibre dispersion and a low content of moisture in the fi-
bres was obtained by pre-treating them. The pre-treatment con-
sisted in washing the fibres in an alcohol solution for 24 h.
Then the fibres were dried and mixed with the polymer pellets
under the presence of a dispersion agent, such as stearic acid
as already mentioned in Sections 2.2 and 4.2. This process
had to be performed quickly enough so that the fibres would
not take up too much moisture from the air. Finally the fibre-
polymer mixture was fed into the extruder.
In general four main cases have been identified in the experi-
ments with regard to bubble formation:
Case 1. Poor fibre dispersion with moist fibres (Fig. 11),
Case 2. Poor fibre dispersion with dry fibres (Fig. 12),
Case 3. Good fibre dispersion with moist fibres (Fig. 13),
Case 4. Good fibre dispersion with dry fibres (Fig. 14).
These cases are discussed below. It is important to note that
these cases correspond to idealisations of the main tendencies
observed in the experiments reported here. As can be expected,
some experiments have shown the combinations of different
idealised cases during the same extrusion run. This might be
due to the fact that even when a stable process is reached at
some point, it may become unstable.
5.1.1 Case 1. Poor Fibre Dispersion with Moist Fibres
(Fig. 11)
This is the worst case scenario in terms of extrudate quality.
The final extrudate presents large central voids arising from
the large amounts of entrapped air in the feeding section. After
the onset of plastication (Fig. 11C) a large void is contained in-
side the channel cross section and covered by a melt film. This
also results in a delay and shifting of the melting zone, when
compared to the plastication of unreinforced PE or PP. This
was typical of untreated jute, sisal and cabuya fibres particu-
larly at the highest concentrations used in these experiments
(10 to 15 %w/w).
37
 F. G. Torres et al.: Single Screw Extrusion of NFRTP

5.1.2 Case 2. Poor Fibre Dispersion with Dry Fibres (Fig. 12)
In this case, it can be appreciated that the pre-drying of the fi-
bres does not lead to an important reduction of the bubbles con-
tent in the extrudate. Fibre clumping has taken place in the
feeding zone. The large voids (Fig. 12B) which are also present
in case 1 persist until the metering zone and appear in the extru-
dates cross section. The problems are the same as in case 1,
with the only difference being that the average size of the dis-
persed bubbles (less than 1 mm) in the extrudate is less than
that in case 1. This was typical of pre-dried jute, sisal and ca-
buya fibres particularly at the highest concentrations used in
these experiments (10 to 15 %w/w).
5.1.3 Case 3. Good Fibre Dispersion with Moist Fibres
(Fig. 13)
In this case, good fibre dispersion has been obtained. This has
been achieved by applying some of the treatments described
in Sections 2.2. and 4.2 to the fibres. However, when dealing
with moist fibres, large bubbles can be found in the molten
polymer as well as in the extrudate (Fig. 13D). The plastication
process in case 3 resembles more that of unreinforced polymers
than cases 1 and 2. This behaviour was found only with sisal
and cabuya fibres when treated with dispersion agents, such as
stearic acid and pre-washed in alcohol.

5.1.4 Case 4. Good Fibre Dispersion

with Dry Fibres (Fig. 14)
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This is close to the ideal case for single

screw extrusion of natural fibre rein-
forced thermoplastics. The extrudates
present only very few small bubbles.
These are due to the remaining moisture
in the fibres or to moisture that is being
taken up during the process. This beha-
viour was found only with sisal and ca-
buya fibres when treated with disper-
sion agents, such as stearic acid and
pre-washed in alcohol, followed by a
For personal use only.

thorough drying procedure. Jute fibres

always showed clumping tendencies in
the feeding section.
Further experimental evidence for
the conditions in the four cases de-
scribed above can be seen in the series
of micrographs shown in Fig. 15.
Fig. 11. Transport processes for case 1: poor dispersion with moist fibres Fig. 15A. shows a typical extrudate for
case 1: a large central void and some
dispersed large bubbles. As mentioned
before, this is the worst scenario and
very poor mechanical properties can be
expected from this extrudate. Fig. 15B
shows a cross section typical for case 3,
where no large central void can be
found, however large dispersed bubbles
are present. Fig. 15C shows a good
quality extrudate, where only small dis-
persed bubbles can be seen. In this case
the best mechanical properties of all
the cross sections shown can be ex-
pected.
It has also been verified from these
experiments that the rise of local
temperature in some extruder zones
leads to fibre degradation. It seems
that the excessive shearing action on
the fibres arising when these clump
together in the feeding section leads
to premature fibre degradation,
although further experimental evi-
Fig. 12. Transport processes for case 2: poor dispersion with dry fibres dence is necessary.

38 Intern. Polymer Processing XVIII (2003) 1

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 F. G. Torres et al.: Single Screw Extrusion of NFRTP

6 Mechanical and Morphological Characterisation of the

Composites Material Avg. tensile strength
N/mm2
Mechanical tests have been performed to the extruded bars
using some modifications of ASTM standard D-638M. PE 0 % w/w (unreinforced) 20.45
PE 5 % w/w sisal untreated 21.49
Rounded bars with a diameter equal to 6.2 mm +/ – 0.1 mm PE 10 % w/w sisal untreated 20.45
were turned from the extruded bars. The specimens were tested PE 5 % w/w sisal – stearic acid 22.30
in a Hounsfield tensile testing machine at a crosshead speed of PE 10 % w/w sisal – stearic acid 19.87
5 mm/min. PE 5 % w/w sisal – alkali treatment 21.75
Many tests were performed, however only results for the spe- PE 10 % w/w sisal – alkali treatment 19.70
cimens showing bubbles/voids of relatively small size (and well PE 5 % w/w Jute – untreated 24.35
dispersed) have been considered. The results are presented in
Table 2. As can be seen from Table 2, an increase in the tensile Table 2. Tensile strengths of the natural fibre reinforced PE extruded
products (all fibres have been pre-dried)

strength can be found as the fibre con-

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centration increases. However, for fibre

concentrations equal to and higher than
10 % in weight a decrease in tensile
strength is observed due to the presence
of larger voids, associated to problems
with fibre dispersion. Jute provides a
much higher reinforcement effect than
sisal due to its higher aspect ratio, how-
ever it tends to form more clumps than
sisal. For jute fibre concentrations high-
er than 5 % by weight it was not possible
to obtain good quality extruded pro-
For personal use only.

ducts, whereas acceptable sisal compo-

sites could be extruded for fibre concen-
trations of up to 10 % by weight. As far
as the fibre treatments are concerned, it
is clear from Table 2 that stearic acid
provides the best tensile test results in
sisal. Fibre treatments for jute had no ef-
fects on the results.
Fig. 13. Transport processes for case 3: good dispersion with moist fibres
The interfacial properties between fi-
bres and matrix have not been discussed
in this paper, however it has been found
that for the extrudates shown here, tran-
scrystallinity occurs, as observed using
polarised light optical microscopy. This
has been reported elsewhere [16].
Fibre length of the extruded compo-
sites has been estimated by optical
methods. Some studies in the literature
[5, 6] indicate that in order to determine
the remaining fibre length distribution
after processing a natural fibre rein-
forced thermoplastic, it is necessary to
dilute the polymer matrix in hot xylene.
That technique has also been tried out in
the present study, but it has been found
to be inadequate for an accurate mea-
surement of the remaining fibres. When
working with glass fibre reinforced
thermoplastics, the fibres can be pre-
pared for measurement by just burning
off the polymer matrix [15], however
Fig. 14. Transport processes for case 4: good dispersion with dry fibres this was not possible here. The problem

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 F. G. Torres et al.: Single Screw Extrusion of NFRTP
Fig. 15. Cross sections (10 ×) of the extrudates showing different types
of voids and bubbles, A: large central void and large dispersed bubbles
(not shown), B: dispersed large bubbles, C: dispersed small bubbles
(not shown)
with hot xylene is that due to its high viscosity, thorough stir-
ring is necessary in order to disperse the fibres. This leads to
further fibre breakage. The fibres also need to be sieved after-
wards. This results in the fibres remaining all over the differ-
ent parts of the equipment involved in the experiments and
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therefore a proper sample cannot be prepared. Most of the
finely grounded fibres (corresponding to a first peak in a fibre
length distribution) are lost during the preparation process.
Our approach to this problem consisted in pressing the
extruded products, right after they emerge from the extrusion
die, into flat thin plates (ca. 1 mm thick). These plates can be
placed against a source of light, and optical methods can be
used to estimate the average fibre length. Weight average fibre
length values for the extrusion experiments described here
(initial fibre length in the range 5 to 6 mm) were in the range
2.2 to 3.6 mm.
Due to the lack of an accurate fibre length measurement (and
For personal use only.
sample preparation) procedure, no study was made to deter-
mine the effect of process and material variables on the final fi-
bre length distribution.
7 Conclusions
Natural fibre reinforced thermoplastics, with PP and HDPE
matrices and sisal, jute and cabuya fibres, have been processed
by conventional single screw extrusion. It has been shown that
it is important to determine the individual relevant properties
of the fibres in order to determine the adequate processing con-
ditions for the composites. For instance coconut fibres were in-
itially discarded due to a very poor thermal stability and a high
moisture content.
An acceptable quality of the extruded rods can be achieved if
the problems associated with bubble formation are controlled.
A way of controlling the formation of bubbles and voids is by
pre-treating the fibres. This has been carried out by dewaxing
them, pre-washing them with alcohol, and with the use of dis-
persion agents, such as stearic acid.
It has been shown that bubble formation depends heavily on
the feeding behaviour of the polymer-fibres blend fed to the ex-
truder and less on the moisture level (hydrophilic behaviour) of
the reinforcing fibres. Four main idealised cases for the evolu-
tion of the bubble formation process have been identified by
studying the material transport during extrusion. The use of
dispersion agents, such as stearic acid, which also reduces the
natural hydrophilicity of the fibres has proved to produce the
best level of fibre dispersion in the extrusion process. This has
been accompanied by extrudates displaying the best quality.
40
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Of all fibre treatments tried out, the use of stearic acid has re-
sulted in the best final material properties accompanied of a re-
duced level of bubbles. Pre-drying of the fibres for 24 h at
65 °C also improves the final quality of the extrudates. In addi-
tion, bubble formation depends on the fibre content of the com-
posite, since with increased fibre concentration more of the
above mentioned problems tend to occur.
When comparing products with a low degree of bubbles, it
has been shown that fibre treatment in general does not have a
major effect on the final mechanical properties of the compo-
site products. In order to achieve the best quality possible in
the extruded products, it is important to design adequate fibre
treatment and management procedures which ensure good fi-
bre dispersion in the feeding section of the extruder.
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Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the help received from the
Rectorate and the Direction of Research of the Catholic Uni-
versity of Peru (PUCP), and the Institute of Corrosion and Pro-
tection ICP-PUCP for the use of their microscopy facilities.
Date received: December 10, 2002
Date accepted: January 14, 2003
Intern. Polymer Processing XVIII (2003) 1