Del Rosario, Chrizzia M.

BSM 1B
Laboratory Activities
Activity # 1
OBJECTIVE: To learn the structure and function of bone, as well as, its developmental stages.
PART A—INTRODUCTION TO BONES
1. Study the split femur and identify the following parts.
 articular cartilage  compact bone
 spongy bone  medullary cavity
 epiphyseal line  yellow bone marrow
 red bone marrow  periosteum
 endosteum  nutrient artery

2. Define each term and where appropriate give a function.

1. Diaphysis− the shaft of long bone.
2. Epiphysis− end of long bone.
3. Spongy (cancellous) bone− layer of bone tissue having many small spaces and
found just inside the layer of compact bone.
4. Compact bone−hard, dense bone tissue that is beneath the outer membrane of a
bone.
5. Medullary cavity− the space within a bone that contains the marrow.
6. Red marrow− bone marrow of children and some adult bones that is required for
the formation of red blood cells.
7. Yellow marrow− site of fat storage.
8. Endosteum− membrane lining the mudallary cavity of a bone.
9. Periosteum− forms and repairs bone tissues.
10. Epiphyseal plate−growth plate, made of cartilage, gradually ossifies.

QUESTIONS
1. What are the two types of bone formation?
 Intramembranous and endochondral
2. Which bones are formed from each type of bone formation?
  Endochondral ossification is the process of bone development from hyaline
cartilage.

3. Are bones supplied with arteries? Veins? Nerves? Lymph?

 Yes, bones are supplied with arteries, veins, nerves and lymph.
4. Differentiate between interstitial, concentric and circumferential lamellae
 Interstitial lamellae- is between osteons. Remnants of concentric or
circumferential lamellae (osteons) there were partially removed during bone
remodelling.
 Concentric lamellae- circular layers of bone matrix that surrounds central
canal.
 Circumferential lamellae- forms outer surface of compact bone- thin plates
that extend around bone.

Activity # 2

DIAGRAMS: Label the indicated structures on the diagram

1. Proximal epiphysis 7. Yellow bone marrow

2. Diaphysis 8. Periosteum
3. Distal epiphysis 9. Spongy bone
4. Epiphyseal line 10. Compact bone
5. Endosteum 11. Articular cartilage
6. Compact bone
Activity #3
label the different parts of the skeletal system

SKULL
THE SKELETON

MANDIBLE

VERTICAL VERTEBRAE

CLAVICLE

HUMERUS

STERNUM

RIB

ULNA

RADIUS

ILIUM

ISHIUM

FEMUR

PATELLA

TIBIA

FIBULA
MANDIBLE

CERVICAL SKULL
VERTEBRAE
CLAVICLE

SCAPULA

HUMERUS

RIB

ULNA

RADIUS

THORACIC
VERTEBRAE

LUMBAR
VERTEBRAE

SACRUM

ISCHIUM

FEMUR
Activity # 4
VERTEBRAL LANDMARKS

1. IDENTIFY and LEARN the following structures

2. LABEL them in the diagram below.

• Body • Transverse foramen (cervical only) • Demifacet (thoracic only)

• Lamina • Superior articular process • Facet (thoracic only)
• Pedicle • Inferior articular process • Vertebral foramen (spinal canal)
• Spinous process • Inferior notch • Transverse process
• Intervertebral foramen (formed by 2

1. Spinous process
2. Lamina
3. Transverse coastal facet (for tubercle of rib)
4. Transverse process
5. Superior articular process and facet
6. Pedicle
7. Superior coastal facet (for head of rib)
8. Vertebral foramen
9. body

ATLAS (C1)

1. anterior arch
2. inferior articular surface of lateral mass for axis
3. transverse process
4. transverse foramen
5. posterior arch
6. vertebral foramen

AXIS (C2)
1. spinous process
2. lamina
3. transverse process
4. superior aricular facet
5. dens

SACRUM AND COCCYX

1. IDENTIFY and LEARN the following structures.
2. LABEL them in the diagram below.

Sacral promontory Superior articular process Coccyx

Sacral foramina Ala Sacral canal
Articular fossa for ilium Body Sacral hiatu
 1. Sacral promontory
2. Ala
3. body
4. Coccyx
5. Superior articular process
6. Sacral canal
7. Articular fossa for ilium
8. Sacral foramina
9. Sacral hiatus

PART A—QUESTIONS

1. What features make the cervical

 The transverse foramina, spinous process.

2. What blood vessel is closely associated with the cervical vertebrae? How?
 The vertebral arteries pass through transverse foramnina.

3. What separates vertebral bodies from each other and what are they made of?
 Intervertebral discs and fibrocartilage
4. What nervous structures exit the intervertebral foramina?
 Spinal nerves
5. How do the ribs articulate with the thoracic vertebrae?
 the head articulates w/ demi facet on thoracic vertebrae, tubercle of ribs articulate
w/ facet on transverse processes on thoracic vertebrae
6. How many articulating surfaces does T8 have?
 12

PART B—THE THORACIC CAGE

1.STERNUM
1. Jugular (interclavicular) notch
 2. Clavicular notch
3. Manubrium
4. Sternal angle
5. Coastal facet
6. Gladiolus (body)
7. Xiphoid process

QUESTIONS

1. What is the clinical significance of the xiphoid process and the body?
 Used to locate region for compression for CPR
2. Can you palpate the jugular notch?
 Yes
3. How are the ribs attached to the sternum?
 Coastal cartilage

2. RIBS

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following structures.

 LABEL them in the diagram below.

• 1st rib • Neck • Body • Typical rib

• Tubercle of rib • Costal groove • Head • Sternal end

1. Tubercle of rib
2. Crest
3. Costal groove
4. Head
5. Neck
6. Body
7. Sternal end

QUESTIONS

1. Can you distinguish between the sternal and vertebral ends of each rib? How?
 Vertebral end compromises of a face and a demi facet.

2. Which rib stands out as having a unique shape?

 First pair is flattened and broad forming a horizontal plate.
3. Can you clearly describe how the ribs articulate with the thoracic vertebrae?
 The head of the rib articulates with the bodies of the thoracic vertebra by two
facets: one articulates with the demi facet of the same number thoracic vertebra,
the other articulates with the demi facet of the thoracic vertebrae immediately
 superior. The tubercle of the rib articulates with the transverse process of the
same-numbered thoracic vertebra.

4. What are the spaces between ribs called?

 Intercostal space

5. What structures travel in the costal groove?

 Intercostal nerves and blood vessels

6. As a group, what are the first seven pairs of ribs called? Why?
 They are called the True (vertebrosternal) ribs because they are attached directly
to the sternum by individual coastal cartillages.

7. As a group, what the lower five pairs of ribs called? Why?

 They are called false ribs. 8-10 join the sternum indirectly; each joins costal
cartilage immediately above.

8. What name is given to the last two pairs of ribs? Why?

 They are called floating ribs. They have no anterior attachment.

9. Which of the two figures in the previous page represents a RIGHT rib?
 2nd figure

PART C—THE SKULL

1. ANTERIOR ASPECT OF SKULL

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following bones.
 LABEL them in the diagram below.

• Frontal • Ethmoid • Maxilla • Nasal • Lacrimal

• Temporal • Inferior nasal concha • Vomer • Mandible • Sphenoid
• Zygomatic

 Identify and LEARN the following structures.

 LABEL them in the diagram below.

NOTE: Labels on the diagram do not correspond with the list below.
• Nasal cavity • Supraorbital foramen
• Optic canal (foramen) • Mental foramen
• Perpendicular plate (ethmoid) • Superior orbital fissure
• Orbital cavity • Infraorbital foramen
• Inferior orbital fissure • Alveolar process
• Middle nasal concha
 1. frontal bone
2. Parietal bone
3. Frontonasal suture
4. Supraorbital foramen (notch)
5. Optic canal
6. Supraorbital margin
7. Temporal bone
8. Sphenoid bone
9. Lacrimal bone
10. Ethmoid bone
11. Inferior orbital fissure
12. Zygomatic boone
13. Middle nasal concha
14. Infraorbital foramen
15. Perpendicular plate
16. Inferior nasal concha
17. Maxilla
18. Vomer
19. Alveolar processes
20. Mental protuberance
21. Mental foramen

2. LATERAL ASPECT OF SKULL

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following bones.

 LABEL them in the diagram below.

• Mandible • Frontal • Maxilla • Temporal

• Sphenoid • Nasal • Occipital • Lacrimal
• Parietal • Ethmoid

 Identify and LEARN the following structures.

 LABEL them in the diagram below.**Labels on the diagram do not correspond to the list
below**

• Zygomatic arch • Condylar process (mandibular condyle)

• Zygomatic process (temporal) • Mastoid process
• Temporal process (zygomatic) • Squamous suture
• Alveolar process • Styloid process
• Lambdoid suture • External occipital protuberance
• External acousticmeatus • Lacrimal fossa
• Coronoid process (mandible

1. sphenoid bone
2. Squamous suture
3. Coronal suture
4. Frontal bone
5. Parietal bone
6. Ethmoid bone
7. Lacrimal bone
8. Temporal bone
9. Lambdoid suture
10. Nasal bone
11. Lacrimal fossa
12. Occipital bone
13. External acoustic meatus
14. Zygomatic bone
15. Coronoid process
16. Maxilla
17. Mastoid process
18. Styloid process
19. Condylar process
20. Mandible

3. POSTERIOR ASPECT OF SKULL

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following bones and structures.

 LABEL them in the diagram below.

• Parietal • Sagittal suture • External occipital protuberance

• Occipital • Lambdoid suture

1. Sagittal suture
 2. Parietal
3. Lambdoid suture
4. Occipital
5. External occipital protuberance
6. Mastoid process

4. INFERIOR ASPECT OF SKULL

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following bones and structures.

 LABEL them in the diagram below. **Labels on the diagram do not correspond with the list
below**

OCCIPITAL TEMPORAL SPHENOID

• Occipital condyles • Carotid canal • Foramen ovale
• Foramen magnum • Mastoid process • Foramen spinosum
• External occipital protuberance • Styloid process • Medial pterygoid process

MAXILLA • Foramen lacerum • Lateral pterygoid process

• Palatine process
PALATINE
• Horizontal plate
• Jugular foramen • Greater wing
• Stylomastoid foramen VOMER
• Mandibular fossa
• Zygomatic process
• External acoustic meatus

1. Median palatine suture

2. Vomer
3. Foramen lacerum
4. Foramen ovale
5. Medial pterygoid processes
6. Sphenoid bone
7. Carotid canal
8. Styloid process
9. Temporal bone
10. Mandibular fossa
11. External acoustic meatus
12. Stylomastoid foramen
13. Jugular foramen
14. Foramen magnum
15. Mastoid process
16. Occipital condyle
5. SUPERIOR VIEW OF SKULL

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following bones and structures.

 LABEL them in the diagram below.

SPHENOID TEMPORAL

• Greater wing • Foramen rotundum • Foramen lacerum

• Lesser wing • Foramen ovale • Internal acoustic meatus
• Hypophyseal fossa of sella turcica • Foramen spinosum
• Optic canal • Lateral pterygoid process** OCCIPITAL
• Anterior clinoid process • Medial pterygoid process** • Hypoglossal canal
• Posterior clinoid process **[SEE SECOND DIAGRAM]
• Superior orbital fissure ETHMOID
• Cribriform plate
• Crista galli

1. Crista galli
2. Sella turcica
3. Cribriform plate
4. Sphenoid bone
5. Optic canal
6. Anterior clinoid process
7. Foramen ovale
8. Foramen ovale
9. Foramen spinosum
10. Posterior clinoid process
11. Foramen lacerum
12. Hypoglossal canal
13. Lesser wing
14. Greater wing
15. Superior orbital fissure
16. Medial pterygoid process
17. Lateral pterygoid process

6. ADDITIONAL SKULLBONES—ETHMOID—

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following structures.

 LABEL them in the diagram.
ETHMOID
1. Crista galli
2. Cribriform plate
3. Perpendicular plate
4. Middle nasal concha

7. ADDITIONAL SKULL BONES—TEMPORAL

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following structures.

 LABEL them in the diagram below.

TEMPORAL
• Mastoid process • External acoustic meatus
• Styloid process • Internal acousticmeatus
• Zygomatic process • Carotid canal
• Foramen lacerum • Jugular foramen
• Stylomastoid foramen • Mandibular fossa

1. Zygomatic process
2. Mandibular fossa
3. Styloid process
4. Mastoid process
5. External acoustic meatus
8. ADDITIONAL FEATURES OF THE SKULL

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following bones and structures.

 LABEL them in the diagram below.

OCCIPITAL FRONTAL
• External occipital protuberance • Supraorbital foramen
• Occipital condyle
• Foramen magnum ZYGOMATIC
• Temporal process
PARIETAL
NASAL VOMER

LACRIMAL INFERIOR NASAL CONCHAE

PARIETAL
BONE
9. ADDITIONAL SKULL BONES—MAXILLA
OCCIPITAL AND PALATINE
CONDYLE
 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following structures.
 LABEL them in the diagram.
OCCIPITAL
BONE

FORAMEN ZYGOMATIC
MAGNUM BONE

EXTERNAL
 MAXILLA
• Palatine process
• Alveolar process
• Infraorbital foramen

PALATINE
• Horizontal plate

1. Infraorbital foramen
2. Alveolar process
3. Horizontal plate

10. ADDITIONAL SKULL BONES—MANDIBLE

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following structures.

 LABEL them in the diagram below.

MANDIBLE
1. Coronoid process
2. Mandibular foramen
3. Alveolar process
4. Mental foramen
5. Body
6. Angle
7. Ramus
8. Mandibular notch
9. Condylar process

11. ADDITIONAL SKULL BONES—OSSICLES

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following bones.

  LABEL them in the diagram.

OSSICLES
• Malleus
• Incus
• Stapes

QUESTIONS

1. What bones form the nasal septum?

 Vomer and the perpendicular plate of ethmoid
2. What bones form the zygomatic arch
 Temporal and zygomatic bone
3. What bones form the hard palate?
 Maxillary bones and the palatine bone
4. Looking at the skull from above with the calvarium removed, what bone can be seen protruding
through the frontal bone?
 Ethmoid bone; cribriform plate and crista galli
5. What bone contains the ear ossicles?
 Temporal bone
6. What bones form the sagittal suture?
 Parietal bone
7. What bones form the lambdoid suture?
 Occipital and parietal bone
8. What bones form the coronal suture
 Frontal bone and parietal bone
9. What endocrine structure rests in the hypophyseal fossa of the sella turcica?
 Pituitary gland
10. Name four foramina that are clustered together in the sphenoid bone?
 Foramen rotundum, ovale, spinosum and lacerum
11. What is a sinus?
 Air filled cavity in certain skull bones
12. Which bones have sinuses?
 Frontal, maxillary, ethmoid and sphenoid.
13. What bone does the mandible articulate with?
 Temporal bone

Activity # 5

APPENDICULAR SKELETON ANATOMY

OBJECTIVES:
Be able to identify each bone type.
Distinguish between RIGHT and LEFT bones.
Be able to identify articulations between bones and bone markings.

PART A—THE PECTORAL (SHOULDER)GIRDLE

1. CLAVICLES
 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following bones and structures.
 LABEL them in the diagrams below.

1. Sternal end
2. Acrominal end

QUESTIONS :
1. Indicate which of the two figures above is a LEFT clavicle. How can you tell?
 Figure B. because the superior surface of the clavicle showing the medial
sternoclavicular angle.

2. SCAPULA
 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following structures.
 LABEL them in the diagrams below. **Labels on the diagram do not correspond with the list below**

• Suprascapular notch • Supraglenoid tubercle

• Superior border • Infraglenoid tubercle
• Superior angle • Coracoid process
• Vertebral (medial) border • Acromion process
• Inferior angle • Spine
• Axillary (lateral) border • Supraspinous fossa
• Subscapular fossa • Infraspinous fossa
• Glenoid cavity 1

1. Coracoid process
2. Subscapular fossa
3. Medial (vertebral) border
4. Lateral (axillary) border
5. Glenoid cavity
6. Acromion process
7. Infraspinous fossa
 8. Lateral border
9. Inferior angle
10. Medial border
11. Spine
12. Supraspinous fossa
13. Superior angle
14. Superior border
15. Suprascapular notch
16. Supraglenoid tubercle
17. Lateral border

PART B—THE UPPER LIMBS

1. HUMERUS

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following structures.

 LABEL them in the diagrams below.

• Head • Deltoid tuberosity • Trochlea

• Surgical neck
• Anatomical neck
• Greater tubercle
• Lesser tubercle
• Intertubercular sulcus
• Radial groove • Medial epicondyle
• Lateral supracondylar ridge • Medial supracondylar ridge
• Lateral epicondyle • Coronoid fossa
• Radial fossa • Olecranon fossa
• Capitulum

1. anatomical neck
2. Head
3. Surgical neck
4. Head
5. Intertubercular sulcus
6. Lesser tubercle
7. Radial groove
8. Deltoid tuberosity
9. Medial supracondylar ridge
10. Lateral supracondylar ridge
 11. Radial fossa
12. Lateral epicondyle
13. Medial epicondyle
14. Lateral epicondyle
15. Olecranon fossa
16. trochlea

2. RADIUS AND ULNA

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following bones and structures.

 LABEL them in the diagrams below.

RADIUS and ULNA

1. Trochlear notch
2. Radial notch
3. Head
4. Olecranon process
5. Head
6. Radial tuberosity
7. Ulna
8. Radius
9. Ulnar notch (fossa)
10. Styloid process
11. Head of ulna
12. Styloid process

3. HAND

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following bones.

 LABEL them in the diagram below.

CARPALS (WRIST) METACARPALS 1-5(PALM)

• Capitate • Lunate PHALANGES 1-5(FINGERS)
• Trapezoid • Triquetrum • Proximal
• Trapezium • Pisiform • Middle
 • Scaphoid • Hamate • Dista

1. Middle phalanx
2. Proximal phalanx
3. Distal phalnx
4. Metacarpals
5. Trapezoid
6. Capitate
7. Hamate
8. Trapezium
9. Scaphoid
10. Pisiform
11. Triquetrum
12. Lunate

PART C—THE PELVIC (HIP) GIRDLE

1. OS COXAE (HIP BONES)

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following bones and structures.
 LABEL them in the diagrambelow.

ILIUM ISCHIUM PUBIS

• Iliac crest • Ischial spine • Superior ramus of pubis
• Anterior superior iliac spine • Lesser sciatic notch
• Anterior inferior iliac spine • Ischial tuberosity • Acetabular fossa
• Posterior superior iliac spine • Ischiopubic ramus • Acetabular notch
• Posterior inferior iliac spine  Inferior ramus of pubis • Acetabulum
• Greater sciatic notch  Inferior ramus of ischium • Obturator foramen
1. iliac crest
2. Anterior gluteal line
3. Anterior superior iliac spine
4. Anterior inferior iliac spine
5. Superior iliac spine
6. Posterior inferior iliac spine
7. Acetabulum
8. Acetabular fossa
 9. Greater sciatic notch
10. Ischial spine
11. Acetabular notch
12. Superior ramus of pubis
13. Lesser sciatic notch
14. Ischial tuberosity
15. Inferior ramus of pubis
16. Obturator foramen
17. Ischium
18. Ischial ramus

PART D—THE LOWER LIMB

1. FEMUR (THIGH)

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following structures.

 LABEL them in the diagrams below.

1. Fovea capitis
2. Intertrochanteric line
3. Neck
4. Head
5. Greater trochanter
6. Intertrochanteric crest
7. Lesser trochanter
8. Gluteal tuberosity
9. Linea aspera
10. Intercondylar notch
11. Lateral epicondyle
12. Adductor tubercle
13. Medial epicondyle
14. Medial condyle

2. TIBIA AND FIBULA (LEG)

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following bones and structures

 LABEL them in the diagram below.
 1. Intercondyar eminence
2. Lateral condyle
3. Head
4. Tibial tuberosity
5. Anterior crest
6. Medial malleolus
7. Lateral malleolus

3. FOOT

 IDENTIFY and LEARN the following bones.

 LABEL them in the diagram below.

1. Middle
2. Distal
3. Proximal
4. Metatarsal
5. Lateral cuneiform
6. Medial cuneiform
7. Intermediate cuneiform
8. Cuboid
9. Navicular
10. Talus
11. calcaneus
DEL ROSARIO CHRIZZIA M.
BSM 1B

Laboratory Activity
Activity # 1
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES
 To learn the histology and physiology involved in skeletal muscle contraction.
 To learn the location, points of attachment and actions of the major skeletal muscles in
the human muscular system.
PART A—TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE
 Identify each type of muscle below.
 List the identifying features for each type of muscle below the picture.

Characteristics: Characteristics: Characteristics:

 Has spindle shaped
nostriated,
uninucleated fibers
 Occurs in walls of
internal organ
 involuntary
 has striated, branced
generally
uninucleated fibers
 occurs in the wall of
heart
 involuntary
 has striated, tubular,
multinucleated fibers
 is usually attached to
skeleton
 voluntary

 Define each of the following and give their location:

TERM DEFINITION
a. Sarcolemma A specialized membrane that
surrounds striated muscle
fiber cells
b. Intercalated disc Represent the undulating
double membranes where
two cells are tightly bound
together by desmosomes and
connected by gap junctions,
allowing electrical impulse
conduction from cell to cell.
c. Sarcoplasm The cytoplasm of a myocyte
d. Fascicle Bundle of skeletal muscle
fibers surrounded by
perimysium
e. Striations  the stripe-like visual features
found in skeletal muscle.
f. Myofilaments  the two protein filaments of
myofibrils in muscle cells.
The two proteins are myosin
and actin and are the
contractile proteins involved
in muscle contraction. The
two filaments are a thick one
composed mostly of myosin,
and a thin one composed
mostly of actin. 
g. T-tubules are extensions of the cell
membrane that penetrate into
the center of skeletal and
cardiac muscle cells.
LOCATION
Found in plasma membrane
of the muscle cell
Located at the longitudinal
ends of cardiomyocyte to
form a cell
Within the core of the
myotube between and around
nuclei
One side of the tendon
Located in the walls of the
heart
Found in muscle cells formed
by two transverse filament
systems: the thick and thin
filaments
Found in ventricular muscle
cells in most species and in
atrial muscle cells from large
mammals
  Complete the following chart comparing the three muscle types.
SKELETAL
Location found between bones, and
uses tendons to connect the
epimysium to the
periosteum, or outer
covering, of bone. Skeletal
muscle is adapted and shaped
in many different ways,
which give rise to complex
movements
No. nuclei Skeletal muscle tissue has
per fiber the most nuclei out of the
different types
Location of the position of nuclei at the
nuclei periphery
Striations? Muscle tissue can be
categorized into skeletal
muscle tissue,
smooth muscle tissue, and
cardiac muscle tissue. Skelet
al muscle fibers are
cylindrical,
multinucleated, striated, and
under voluntary control.
Smooth muscle cells are
spindle shaped, have a
CARDIAC
located in the walls of
the heart, appear striated,
and are under
involuntary control.
Smooth muscle fibers are
located in walls of
hollow visceral organs,
except the heart, appear
spindle-shaped, and are
also under involuntary
control.
has a single (sometimes
two) centrally
located nucleus
the myocardium, consists
of cross-
striated muscle cells,
cardiomyocytes, with
one centrally
placed nucleus. Nuclei ar
e oval, rather pale
and located centrally in
the muscle cell which is
10 - 15 wide.
Cardiac muscle
has branching fibers, one
nucleus per
cell, striations, and
intercalated disks. Its
contraction is not under
voluntary control.
SMOOTH
 found in the wall of
hollow organs,
passageways, tracts,
eye and skin.
Structure. Fibers
of smooth
muscle group in
branching bundles,
which allows for cells
to contract much
stronger than those of
striated musculature.
made when myoblasts
fuse together; muscle
fibers therefore are
cells with
multiple nuclei,
known as myonuclei,
with each
cell nucleus originatin
g from a single
myoblast.
located in the center
and takes a cigar-like
shape during
contraction.
Smooth muscle has
no striations, is not
under voluntary
control, has only one
nucleus per cell, is
tapered at both ends,
and is called
involuntary muscle.
 single, centrally located
nucleus, and lack striations.
Branching a skeletal muscle
fibers fibre composed of two or
more cytoplasmically
continuous strands
Intercalate Skeletal muscle consists of
d discs? multinucleated muscle fibers
and exhibits no intercalated
discs. Intercalated
discs support synchronized
contraction of cardiac tissue.
Fiber Each skeletal muscle fiber is
length a skeletal muscle cell. These
cells are incredibly large,
with diameters of up to
100 µm and lengths of up
to 30 cm. The plasma
membrane of a skeletal
muscle fiber is called the
sarcolemma.
Contractio The time between a stimulus
n time to the motor nerve and the
subsequent contraction of the
innervated muscle is called
the latent period, which
usually takes about 10 ms
and is caused by
the time taken for nerve
action potential to propagate,
the time for chemical
transmission at the
neuromuscular junction
Endurance  endurance exercise, such as
? long distance running, with
an increase in the capacity
for aerobic metabolism
PART B—SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE
 Label the structures on the following diagrams.
1. Bone
Cardiac muscle has they are called
branching fibers, one involuntary muscles. 
nucleus per cell,
striations, and
intercalated disks
Intercalated disc allows
the cardiac muscle cells smooth muscle has
to contract in a wave-like branching fibers, one
pattern so that the heart nucleus per cell,
can work as a pump. striations,
and intercalated disks.
the maximal active Each smooth
tension corresponds muscle cell (or
in cardiac muscle to a "muscle fiber") is just
sarcomere length of a few microns
about 2.2 microns. in diameter but may
be two hundred
microns long. 
They generate an action Contract more slowly
potential at the rate of than do
about 70 per minute in skeletal muscle fibers
humans and maintain
(your heart beat).  the contraction for
longer periods of time
Cardiovascular
endurance is the ability smooth
of your heart and lungs muscle sustains longer
to fuel your body with or even near-
oxygen. permanent
contractions.
 2. Epymisium
3. Endomisium
4. Fascile
5. Muscle fibers
6. Tubular
7. Nuclei
8. Thick filament
9. Myofibrils
10. Transverse tubule
11. Myofibril
12. Sarcoplasmic reticulum
13. Terminal cristernae
14. Two line
15. Sacromerc
16. Thick filament
17. It zone
18. H zone
19. A band
20. Sacrome
21. Actin subunits
22. Troponin
23. Portion of a thin filament
24. Head
25. Thin filament

QUESTIONS
1. What is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum?

 Calcium is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

2. The T-tubule is a deep extension of what structure?

 T-tubules are extensions of the cell membrane that associate with the ends of the sarcoplasmic
reticulum.
3. What is the function of the T-tubule?
  T tubules are transverse tubules formed by inward extensions of the sarcolemma. Function is to
allow electrical impulses traveling along the sarcomere to move deeper into the cell.
4. What causes the troponin complex to change its configuration?

 Binding of calcium
5. What occurs as a result of the troponin complex changing form?

 Tropomyosin strand moves away from actin's binding sites.

6. What causes the power stroke to occur?

 As myosin heads bind to the active sites on the actin myofilament, it changes from its high-
energy, (cocked) position to its low-energy shape, which pulls on the thin filament, sliding it
toward the center of the sarcomere.
7. What occurs when ATP attaches to the myosin head?

 As a new ATP molecule binds to the myosin heads, the myosin heads detach from actin
8. What chemical reaction allows the myosin head to return to its high-energy state or its “cocked”
position?

 Hydrolysis of ATP into ADP + Pi provides the energy needed to return the myosin head to its
high-energy, or "cocked," position.

PART C—MAJOR SKELETAL MUSCLES OF THE HUMAN BODY

Be sure to know each muscle on the human diagrams and models. Begin by studying the models
and diagrams of the human body. Label the superficial muscles on the diagram below

1. Sternocleidomastoid
2. Pectoralis minor
3. Serratus anterior
4. Deltoid
5. Pectoralis major
6. Biceps branchii
7. Rectus abdominis
8. Branchialis
9. External oblique
10.Branchioradialis
11.Internal oblique
12.Palmaris longus
13.Transversus abdominis
14.Iliopsoas
15.Tensor fasciae latae
16.Pectineus
17.Sartorius
18.Adductor longus
19.Gracilis
20.Rectus femoris
21.Vastus lateris
22.Vastus medialis
23.Gastrocnemius
24.Extensor digitorum longus
25.Fibularis longus
26.Soleus
27.Sternocleidomastoid
28.Trapezius
29.Deltoid
30.Infraspinatus
31.Teres major
32.Latissimus dorsi
33.Triceps branchii
34.Flexor carpi radialis
35.Gluteus medius
36.Gluteus maximus
37.Adductor magnus
38.Iliotibial tract
39.Bicep femoris
40.Semitendinosus
41.Semimembranosus
42.Gastrocnemius
43.Soleus
44.Calcaneal tendon
Activity # 2
The teres major muscle has its origin on the scapula, like the rotator cuff muscles, but is not
involved in rotating the arm. It inserts lower on the humerus than the rotator cuff muscles and is
involved in adducting the arm (bringing it closer to the midline of the body.) The following are
muscles of arm rotation and adduction. For each, give its origin(s) and insertion(s) and whether
or not it is part of the rotator cuff.
 MUSCLE ORIGIN(S) INSERTION (S) PART OF
ROTATOR CUFF?
Subscapularis Attaches to the lesser tubercle of the Yes
subscapular fossa humerus and the
capsule of the
shoulder joint
Supraspinatus Supraspinous fossa Greater tubercle of Yes
of scapula humerus
Infraspinatus Infraspinous fossa of Greater tubercle of Yes
scapula humerus
Teres minor Lateral border of Greater tubercle of No
scapula humerus
Teres major Posterior aspect of the Medial lip of the No
inferior angle of intertubercular sulcus
scapula of the humerus
Deltoid Lateral 1/3 of Clavicle Deltoid tuberosity of No
(clavicular part), humerus
Acromion (acromial
part), Spine of Scapula
(spinal part)

The following are muscles of arm rotation and adduction. For each, give its origin(s) and
insertion(s).
MUSCLE ORIGIN(S) INSERTION(S)
Bicep branchii Short head - Apex of the Radial tuberosity of the radius
Coracoid process of the scapula Deep fascia of forearm
Long head - Supraglenoid (insertion of the bicipital
tubercle of the scapula aponeurosis)
Mnemonic: 'You walk Shorter
to a street Corner.
Brachialis Distal half of anterior surface of Coronoid process of the Ulna;
humerus Tuberosity of Ulna
Triceps brachii Long head: infraglenoid Proximal end of olecranon
tubercle of scapula; Lateral process of ulna and fascia of
head: posterior surface of forearm.
humerus, superior to radial
groove; Medial head: posterior
surface of humerus, inferior to
radial groove.

MUSCLE LOCATION & ACTION

 DESCRIPTION
Rectus femoris A muscle in the quadriceps, the The rectus femoris is the only
rectus femoris muscle is muscle that can flex the hip.
attached to the hip and helps to
extend or raise the knee. This
muscle is also used to flex the
thigh.
Vastus intermedius The vastus intermedius muscle Extension of knee joint
is located along the upper
portion of the femur, which is
also known as the thighbone.
This muscle covers the front
part of the femur and the side of
the femur. It is directly
underneath and ends at the
rectus femoris muscle, which is
part of the quadriceps cluster of
muscles
Vastus medialis The vastus medialis muscle is a Extends the entire length of the
part of the quadriceps muscle thigh
group, located on the front of
the thigh. It is the most medial,
or inner, of the quadriceps
muscles. It extends the entire
length of the thigh.
Vastus lateris Located on the lateral side of Extend the lower knee and
the thigh. This muscle is the allow the body to rise up from a
largest of the quadriceps which squatting position
includes: rectus femoris, vastus
intermedius, and vastus
medialis
Sartorious The sartorius muscle is a thin, At the hip it flexes, weakly
long, superficial muscle in the abducts, and rotates the thigh
anterior compartment of the laterally. At the knee, it can flex
thigh. It runs down the length of the leg; when the knee is flexed,
the thigh, runs over 2 joints. it also rotates the leg medially.
Gracilis the most superficial and medial Hip adduction and assists knee
of the muscles at the medial flexion
compartment of thigh. It is
located next to the adductor
musculature. and crosses at both
the hip and knee joints.
Semimembranosus Collectively semimembranosus, Hip joint: thigh extension and
semitendinosus and biceps internal rotation Knee joint:
femoris are referred to as the flexion and internal rotation of
hamstring muscles. the leg Stabilizes pelvis.
Semimembranosus (along with
semitendinosus) occupies the
medial aspect of the posterior
thigh.
Semitendinosus The semitendinosus muscle is Flexion of knee, extension of
one of three hamstring muscles the hip joint
that are located at the back of
the thigh. The other two are the
semimembranosus muscle and
the biceps femoris. The
semitendinosus muscle lies
between the other two. These
three muscles work collectively
to flex the knee and extend the
hip
Biceps femoris The biceps femoris is a Hip joint: thigh extension, thigh
doubleheaded muscle located external rotation; Knee joint:
on the back of thigh. It consists leg flexion, leg external
of two parts: the long head, rotation; stabilizes pelvis
attached to the ischium (the
lower and back part of the hip
bone), and the short head,
which is attached to the femur
bone.

Write down the muscles of the thigh in the table below and, for each, give the location of that
muscle and what effect contracting that muscle has.
MUSCLE LOCATION & ACTION
DESCRIPTION
Gastrocnemius The gastrocnemius muscle is a Plantar flexing the foot at the
muscle located on the back ankle joint and flexing the leg at
portion of the lower leg, being the knee joint.
one of the two major muscles
that make up the calf.
Soleus It is capable of exerting Plantar flexor muscle of the
powerful forces onto the ankle ankle
joint. It is located on the back of
the lower leg and originates at
the posterior (rear) aspect of the
fibular head and the medial
border of the tibial shaft
Tibialis anterior Muscle in humans that Dorsiflexion and inversion of
originates along the upper two- the foot
thirds of the lateral (outside)
surface of the tibia and inserts
into the medial cuneiform and
first metatarsal bones of the
foot. It acts to dorsiflex and
invert the foot. This muscle is
mostly located near the shin.
Fibularis longus Long muscle located
superficially in the
lateralcompartment of the leg,
together with the fibularis
brevis muscle
Talocrural joint: Foot plantar
flexion; Subtalar joint: Foot
eversion; Supports longitudinal
and transverse arches of foot

DEL ROSARIO CHRIZZIA M.

BSM 1B

Laboratory Activity

Activity # 1NERVOUS SYSTEM

PART A—NEURON STRUCTURE
OBJECTIVES :
 Study the laboratory models and diagrams in your text to identify the following
structures.
 Write a brief definition or description of each item.
a. cyton (cell body, soma)- Contains the nucleus (also called the soma.)
b. dendrite- Transmit nerve impulses from other cells or sensory systems.
c. Nissl body- packets of stored glycogen for energy
d. nucleus- A special type of cell organelle, that acts as the cells "control center". It contains
the cell's genetic information in the form of DNA chemicals packaged into chromosomes.
e. axon hillock- cone-shaped section joins the axon to cell body
f. axon- The long extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell
body.
g. myelin-Myelin is an electronically-insulating dielectric material that forms a layer. Thsi
is essential for proper functioning of the nervous system. The sheath insulates the axon
and speeds up transmission of nerve impulses.
h. neurilemma and Schwann cell nucleus-Regeneration sheath that can repair damaged
neurons
i. Schwann cell-The supporting cells associated with axons. They are a variety of glial cell
that keep peripherval nerve fibers alive.
j. node of Ranvier-Interrupt the myelin sheath where the axon is in direct contact with
surrounding intercellular fluid.
k. axolemma-outer membrane covering an axon
l. collateral axon-side branches of axon, carry signal to other cells
m. axon terminal or synaptic knob-The hair-like ends of the axon.
n. vesicles-Vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the RER, Golgi
and plasma membrane.

PART B—NEURON QUESTIONS

 Answer the following questions to determine what you have learned.
1. The nucleus of a neuron is located in the soma
2. Myelin is made of the membranes of swann cells and oligodendrocytes
3. Axons carry impulses away from the cell body of a neuron.
4. Affarent neurons are always sensory.
5. Bipolar neurons can be found in the retina of the eye.
6. Schwann cells are only found in the peripheral nervous system
7. Myelin increases conduction velocity.
8. The node of ranvier is an interruption in the myelin sheath which enhances conduction
velocity by allowing saltatory conduction.
9. Membranes and therefore myelin are made of proteins and lipids.
10. Vesicles are membrane-bound sacs that contain neurotransmitters.
11. The cell bodies of neurons often cluster together. Clusters of cells bodies in the CNS are
called nuclei and in the PNS these clusters are called ganglia.
12. Synonyms for sensory and motor are afferent and efferent.
13. Nissl bodies are clusters of rough ER responsible for synthesis of proteins.

PART C-- Multipolar Neuron

 Label the indicated structures on the typical multipolar neuron diagram below

1. Dendrites
2. Nissil bodies
3. Mitochondrion
4. Nucleus
5. Nucleolus
6. Axon hillock
7. Cell body
8. Trigger zone
9. Myelin sheath
10. Node of ranvier
11. Axon
12. Myelin sheath
13. Swann cell
14. Axon terminal

PART D—MULTIPOLAR NEURON QUESTIONS

1. What is the outer membrane of structure #8 called?
 Action potential then travels down plasma membrane away from trigger zone.
2. What is contained in the vesicles in structure #15?
 Sarfus image of lipid vesicles. IUPAC definition. Closed structure formed by
amphiliphilic molecules that contains solvent ( usually water).

3. What cell forms the myelin sheath in the PNS? CNS?

 Myelin is formed by swann cell in the peripheral nervous system and
oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system. Each swann cel forms a single
myelin sheath around the axon.
4. What is structure #3 composed of?
 Mitochondria are composed of two membranes; both are phospholipid bilayers
like the membrane across the mobile. The outer membrane is a selectively
permeable membrane that surrounds the mitochondria. This membrane comes
entire with critical membrane proteins and pores for transporting molecules, just
like the mobile membrane. The inner membrane of the mitochondria folds inward
to form those greater surfaces for cell respiration.

5. What is the function of regions such as #11?

 The axon arises from the soma at a region called the axon hillock, or initial
segment. This is the region where the plasma membrane generates nerve
impulses; the axon conducts these impulses away from the soma or dendrites
 toward other neurons.

6. What is the significance of region #6?

 a region called the axon hillock, or initial segment. This is the region where the
plasma membrane generates nerve impulses; the axon conducts these impulses
away from the soma or dendrites toward other neurons.

7. Draw how a bipolar neuron would differ from this one.


8. Draw how a unipolar neuron would differ from this one.


PART D—NEURON PHYSIOLOGY

1. What is an ion?
 Channels are the key players of communication in the nervous system.

2. Can ions move in and out of cells?

 The action potential is the result of ions moving in and out of the cell.
Specifically, it involves potassium (K +) and sodium (Na +) ions.

3. How do ions move in and out of cells?

 Ions move in and out of the neuron across the cell membrane and affect the
electrical charge of the neuron. When a neuron is at rest, the cell body, or soma,
of the neuron is negatively charged relative to the outside of the neuron.

4. What is an ion channel?

 ion channels are pore-forming membrane proteins that allow ions to pass through
the channel pore.

5. What factors determine in which direction ions will move through an open channel?
  factors determine the net flow of ions across an open ionic channel: the
membrane potential and the differences in ion concentrations between the
intracellular and the extracellular spaces.

6. What two factors contribute to the existence of a resting membrane potential?

 concentration gradients and the relative permeabilities of the ions. 

Activity # 2
To understand the physiology of the neuron and the processes involved with generation and
conduction of an action potential.
PART A—ACTION POTENTIAL
 Use diagrams A, B and C to answer the questions 1-8 on the following page

1. Which diagram illustrates a neuron axon that is beginning depolarization?

 A
2. Which diagram illustrates a resting neuron?
 B
3. Which diagram has an area illustrating the beginning of repolarization?
  C
4. Which diagram depicts the process of propagation?
 A
5. Which of the processes mentioned above is a part of the action potential?
 B
6. What type of ion channel is opening in the highlighted circle of diagram B? How are they
gated (what causes them to open)?
 Resting membrane potential, a neuron at rest is negatively charged: the inside of a
cell is approximately 70 millivolts more negative than the outside (−70 mV, note
that this number varies by neuron type and by species). This voltage is called the
resting membrane potential; it is caused by differences in the concentrations of
ions inside and outside the cell.
7. What type of ion channels are opening and/or closing in the non-highlighted region of
diagram C? How are they gated?
 A ligand-gated Na+ channel will open when a neurotransmitter binds to it and a
mechanically gated Na+ channel will open when a physical stimulus affects a
sensory receptor (like pressure applied to the skin compresses a touch receptor).
Whether it is a neurotransmitter binding to its receptor protein or a sensory
stimulus activating a sensory receptor cell, some stimulus gets the process started.
Sodium starts to enter the cell and the membrane becomes less negative.
8. What contributes to the negative RMP in diagram A?
 When the neuronal membrane is at rest, the resting potential is negative due to the
accumulation of more sodium ions outside the cell than potassium ions inside the
cell. When the membrane is at rest, K+ ions accumulate inside the cell due to a
net movement with the concentration gradient. The negative resting membrane
potential is created and maintained by increasing the concentration of cations
outside the cell (in the extracellular fluid) relative to inside the cell (in the
cytoplasm). The negative charge within the cell is created by the cell membrane
being more permeable to K+ movement than Na+ movement.
 Use diagram D and E to answer the following question
9. Which ion channel (D or E) is voltage-gated?
 Channel D
10. Where on the neuron would you find the ion channels pictured in diagram E?
 Within the membrane of all excitable cells, and of many intracellular organelles

11. What would cause the ion channels in diagram D to open? What do you call this type of
channel?
 In many ion channels, passage through the pore is governed by a "gate", which
may be opened or closed in response to chemical or electrical signals,
temperature, or mechanical force.

12. Where on the neuron would you find the ion channels in diagram D?
 The neuron region that the ion channel is found in, divided into dendrites, soma,
axon, axon hillock, or specific areas of dendrites or axon

13. If the ion channels in diagram E opened just long enough to cause a small positive change
in the RMP, but alone not a great enough change to result in the generation of an action
potential, what would you call this occurrence?
 The neuron cell membrane is partially permeable to sodium ions, so sodium
atoms slowly leak into the neuron through sodium leakage channels.

14. If a postsynaptic membrane had small regions of hyperpolarization, these local

occurrences of
hyperpolarization would be called hyperpolarize.

15. What type of neurotransmitter would cause resulting IPSP’s when bound to a
postsynaptic
receptor?
 Release of neurotransmitter at inhibitory synapses causes
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs), a hyperpolarization of the presynaptic
membrane
Activity # 3 The Spinal Cord & Spinal Cord Tracts
Label the diagram below
1. Dorsal funiculus
2. Dorsal and ventral rootlers of spinal nerve
3. Dorsal root ganglion
4. Dorsal root ganglion
5. Lateral finuculus
6. Ventral horn
7. Anterior median fissure
8. Spinal mater
9. Pia mater
10. Anterior finuculus
11. Arachnoid
12. Fibers
13. Dorsal root
14. Spinal nerve
15. Lateral horn
16. Dorsal (posterior) horn
17. Central canal
18. Posterior median fissure

1. DORSAL WHITE COLUMN

2. CORTICOSPINAL TRACT
3. SPINOTHLAMIC TRACT
4. SPINOCEREBELLAR TRACT

PART B—REGIONS AND ORGANIZATION

 Locate on the models the anatomical features listed below.
Cerebrum Parieto-occipital sulcus (median sagittal view)
Cerebral hemispheres Lateral sulcus
Longitudinal fissure Temporal lobe
Transverse cerebral fissure Insula
Central sulcus Limbic system
Frontal lobe Cerebellum
Parietal lobe Pons
Precentral gyrus Medulla oblongata
Postcentral gyrus Calcarine sulcus (median sagittal view)
Occipital lobe
 Label the diagrams below
1. Pre central gyrus
2. Central silcus
3. Post central gyrus
4. Frontal lobe
5. Parietal lobe
6. Occipital lobe
7. Insula
8. Temporal lobe
9. Transverse cerebral fissure
10. Pons
11. Cerebellum
12. Medulla oblongata
13. Spinal cord
14. Lateral sulcus
15. Frontal lobe
16. Cerebrum
17. Longitudinal fissure

PART C—MENINGES
 Locate on the models the anatomical features listed below.
-Dura Mater -Arachnoid mater
Falx cerebri Subdural space
Falx cerebelli Subarachnoid space
Tentorium cerebelli Arachnoid villi
Diaphragma sellae -Pia mater
Superior sagittal sinus
 Label the diagrams below.
1. Diagram sellae
2. Falx cerebri
3. Tentorium cerebelli
4. Falx cerebelli
5. Arachnoid mater
6. Pia mater
7. Superior sagittal sinus
8. Arachnoid villus
9. Subdural space
10. Subarachnoid space

Activity # 4 Nerve Structure

 Objective: Describe and learn about the structure of a nerve
PART A- Microscopic Anatomy of a Nerve
1. Axon
2. Myelin sheath
3. Endorium
4. Perineurium
5. Fascicle
6. Epinerium
7. Nerve

PART B- QUESTION
 Answer the following questions.
1. What is a nerve?
 A bundle of fibers that transmits impulses of sensation to the brain or spinal cord,
and impulses from these to the muscles and organs
2. What functional types of nerves can you name?
 Afferent, efferent, and intemeurons

3. From what CNS structures do all nerves arise?

 The first two nerves (olfactory and optic) arise from the cerebrum, whereas the
remaining ten emerge from the brain stem.

4. The nerves that arise from CNS structures are categorized as either cranial or spinal

5. Spinal nerves are formed by dorsal and ventral roots.

6. In what two structures might the soma associated with the axons of spinal nerves be
found?
 Spinal cord, gray matter and ganglia.

7. In terms of function, spinal nerves are classified as part of the peripheral nervous
system.
 8. Spinal nerves exit the vertebral column by passing through openings called
intervertebral foramen.
9. Write the name and number of each pair of Cranial nerves:
 1. Olfactory (CN I)
 2. Optic (CN II)
 3. Oculomotor (CN III)
 4. Trochlear (CN IV)
 5. Trigeminal (CN V)
 6. Abducent or abducens (CN VI)
 7. Facial (CN VII)
 8. Vestibulocochlear (CN VIII)
 9. Glossopharyngeal (CN IX)
 10. Vagus (CN X)
 11. Accessory (CN XI)
 12. Hypoglossal (CN XII)

Activity # 4 Cranial nerve Structure

OBJECTIVE: To learn the name of all 12 pairs of cranial nerves and indicated the body
region and structures innervated by each.
PART A CRANIAL NERVES OF THE HUMAN BRAIN
1. olfactory nerve
2. Optic chiasma
3. Optic nerve (ii)
4. OCULOMOTOR NERVER
5. Trochlear nerve (IV)
6. Trigeminal nerve
7. Abducens (VI)
8. Facial nerve (VII)
9. Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
10. Glossopharyngeal (IX)
11. Vagus nerve (X)
12. Spinal accessory nerve (XI)
13. Hypoglossall nerve (XII)

PART B—CRANIAL NERVES

Refer to the diagram on the previous page to answer the following questions.
1.Why is the function of structure #11 so crucial to normal life function?
 Because vagus nerve is an essential part of the brain – gut axis and plays an
important role in the modulation of inflammation, the maintenance of intestinal
homeostasis, and the regulation of food intake, safety, and energy homeostasis.

2.Name structures #4, #8, #10, and #11. What do these four nerves have in common?
 With both sensory and motor components
3. Name the nerves that are sensoryonly
 Olfactory nerve, Optic nerve, Vestibulocochlear nerve
4. Which nerve innervates four of the six extrinsic eye muscles?
 Oculomotor nerve
5.Which two nerves transmit impulses regarding taste from the tongue? Describe which area
of the tongue is innervated by each nerve.
 Facial nerve and Glossopharyngeal nerve.
 The facial nerve innervates the anterior (front) two-thirds of the tongue and the
glossopharyngeal nerve innervates that posterior (back) one-third part of the
tongue
7. Which nerve innervates the trapezius muscle?
 Accessory nerve

8. Damage to which nerve might result in difficulty swallowing and loss of salivation from
the parotid gland?
 Glossopharyngeal nerve

9. What non-parasympathetic function does the Vagus nerve have?

 Heavily involved in, decreases alertness, blood pressure, and heart rate, and helps
with calmness, relaxation, and digestion.
10. Which nerve innervates the muscles of the tongue?
 Vagus nerve

11. Name the three branches of structure # 6 and differentiate between the region and
function of each
 Ophthalmic, Mandibular, and Maxillary divisions
 The ophthalmic and maxillary divisions carry only sensory fibers while the
mandibular division carries both sensory and motor fibers.
PART C—NERVOUS SYSTEM TRACTS
Place the number of the indicated structure on the diagrams
a. 47 ll. 6
b. 28 mm. 2
c. 40, 41 nn. 33
d. 15 oo. 7
e. 39 pp. 5
f. 35 qq. 34
g. 19 rr. 32
h. 30 ss. 4
i. 45 tt. 8
j. 27 uu. 3
k. 23 vv. 7
l. 38
m. 46
n. 37
o. 12, 9
p. 26
q. 44
r. 36
s. 25
t. 24
u. 21
v. 14
w. 29
x. 32
y. 16, 18
z. 17
aa. 10,13
bb. 22
cc. 20
dd. 48
ee. 49
ff. 11
gg. 50
hh. 42
ii. 43
jj. 51
kk. 31
DEL ROSARIO CHRIZZIA M.
BSM 1B

Laboratory Activity
Activity # 1ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES:
 To understand the important role of the endocrine system in regulating the
activity of body cells.
 To explain the function of the various hormones and the results of their
hyposecretion or hypersecretion.

PART A—OVERVIEW OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system works with the nervous system in controlling much of what goes on in the
body.
 REVIEW these basic facts regarding the endocrine system:
 It is composed of glands.
 Glands produce hormones.
 Hormones are chemical messengers that are released directly into the blood (no ducts).
 Hormones work at specific locations (targets).
 Hormones work by attaching to receptors at the target.
 Receptors may be on the target cell membrane or inside the target cell (intracellular).
 The pituitary is often called the master gland of the body since it oversees much of the
action of other glands.
 The pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus.
 The pituitary gland is functionally and structurally related to the hypothalamus.
 Structural relationships include direct axonal connections between the hypothalamus and
the posterior pituitary and a specialized “portal” system (a capillary network).
 Functional relationships include release of releasing and inhibiting hormones by the
hypothalamus which affect the anterior pituitary and the production of oxytocin and ADH
by the hypothalamus which are stored and released as needed by the posterior pituitary

PART B—GROSS ANATOMY OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 Fill the table below

GLAND HORMONES PRODUCED

Anterior pituitary Prolactin(PRL), Growth Hormone(GH),
 Adrenocorticotropic Hormone(ACTH),
Luteinizing Hormone(LH), Follicle
Stimulating hormone(FSH), Thyroid-
stimulating Hormone(TSH).
Posterior pituitary Vasopressin or Antidiuretic hormone(ADH)
and Oxytocin
Thyroid Tri-iodothyronine(T3),
Tetraiodothyronine(Thyroxine or T4)
Calcitonin
Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone or Parathormone
Adrenal Mineralocorticoids(aldosterone),
Glucocorticoids(cortisol), Androgens(male sex
hormone)
Pancreas Glucagon, Insulin, Somastostatin, Pancreatic
Polypeptide
Testes Testosterone
Ovaries Estrogen, Progesterone
Pineal Melatonin
Thymus Thymosin, Thymopoietin,Thymulin

GLAND HORMONE STIMULATED INHIBITED TARGET EFFECTS OF

 ORGAN HORMONE
POSTERIOR Antidiuretic Water reabsorption It is inhibited Kidney Its effect is it acts on
PITUITARY Hormone(ADH) is stimulated by by atrial tubules the kidneys and
[supraoptic nucleus antidiuretic natriuretic blood vessels to help
of hypothalamus] hormone, which peptide(ANP). regulate blood
activates the Smooth preesure.
injection of “water muscle in
channels” or arterioles
aquaporins into the
membranes of
kidney tubules.
Oxytocin It stimulates the A number of Uterine Oxytocin is a
(Paraventricular uterine muscles to factors can smooth chemical messenger
nucleus of contract and inhibit oxytocin muscle that plays a key role
hypothalamus increases the release release, among in a variety of human
of prostaglandis, them acute behaviorssuch as
which causesthe stress. For Mammary sexual arousal,
contractions to example, Gland acceptance,
become even oxytocin confidence, romantic
stronger. neurons are attachment, and
repressed by mother- infant
catecholamines bonding.
, which are
released from
the adrenal
gland in
reponse to
many types of
stress including
fright.

Growth Hormone It is stimulated by It is inhibited Liver, Bone and cartilage

(GH) growth hormone- by adipose development is
releasing hormone somatostatin. tissue supported by growth
(GHRH). hormone, it also
controls fat, muscle,
It stimulates the tissues and bone in
liver and other our bodies as well as
tissues to secrete other aspects of our
IGF-I. metabolism
including insulin
action and blood
sugar.
 Prolactin (PRL) It stimulates the Polactin Mammary Milk production and
breast alveolar concentrations Gland the growth of
epithelial cells to inhibit mammary glands
synthesize milk secretionof within breast tissues
components, gonadotropin- are the two primary
including lactose releasing functions of
(i.e. the hormone prolactin.
carbohydrate of (GnRH) from
milk, casein(i.e. the the
protein milk) and hypothalamus,
lipids. thereby
decreasing the
secretion of
gonadotropins
(luteinizing
hormone and
follicle –
stimulating
hormone), and
may also
inhibit the
action of
gonadotropins
on the gonads.
ANTERIOR Thyroid A pituitary hormone T3 inhibits Thyroid It helps to maintain a
PITUITARY Stimulating that stimulates the TSH secretion Gland healthy weight, body
Hormone (TSH) thyroid gland to more than any temperature, muscle
produce other hormone. strength, and even
thyroxine(T4), and TSH secretion the mood.
the tri-iodothyronine is so responsive
(T3) which to small
stimulates the changes in free
metabolism of T4 via this
almost every tissues negative
in the body. feedback loop
that irregular
TSH levels in
hypothyroidism
and
hyperthyroidis
m are identified
earlier than free
T4 levels.
Adrenocorticotropi It stimulates the Glucocorticoids Adrenal It is a hormone that
c Hormone production and inhibit cortex is essentialin how
(ACTH) release of cortisol corticotropin- the body reacts to
from the cortex releasing stress. The pituitary
(outer part) of the hormone, gland produces
adrenal gland. making it part ACTH, which
of a classic induces the adrenal
negative gland to develop and
feedback loop. release cortisol.
The parts on
the adrenal
gland and
glucocorticoids
provide more
detail on the
function of
ACTH in
regulating
adrenal steroid
secretion.
Follicle FSH stimulates the Estradiol is a Ovaries In females it
Stimulating development of potent inhibitor and testes stimulates the
Hormone (FSH) ovarian follicles in of FSH release (Tubules) growthof ovarian
the ovary prior to that inhibits follicles in the ovary
the release of an egg mRNA before the release of
from one of them transcription by an egg from one
during ovulation acting directly follicle at ovulation
on the while in male it
gonadotrope. stimulates testicular
growth and enhances
the production of an
androgen.

Luteinizing In males it LH secretion is Ovaries LH is

Hormone(LH) stimulates inhibited by and testes important for sexual
testosterone release progesterone (Leydig development and
by the Leydig cells and estrogen, cells) work. It aids in the
of the testes while in and oral regulation of the
female it stimulates cotraceptives menstrual cycle in
steroid release from are successful women, it also
the ovaries, since they causes an egg to be
ovulation,and the prevent the LH released from the
 release of surge that ovary, this is reffered
progesterone after causes to as ovulation.
ovulation by the ovulation.
corpus luteum.
Thyroxine(T4) Thyroid stimulating An excess of T4 and T3 produce
Tri- hormone (TSH) is iodine Most alterations in brain
iodothyronine(T3) produced by the inhibitsthe tissues electrolyte
(Follicular cells) pituitary gland when secretion of the metabolism, the
the amount of the thyroid most important of
thyroid hormones hormone. which are those
(T3 and T4) falls to concerned with NA
low. TSH stimulates distribution.
the thyroid gland to
produce more
hormones.
THYROID Calcitonin It is stimulated by It inhibits the
GLAND (Parafollicular increases in serum activity of Bone Calcitonin reduces
cells) calcium osteoclasts, blood calcium levels
concentration , which are the Osteoblast by inhibiting bone
which protects cells osteoclast production
against the responsible for and increasing
development of breaking down calcium excretion in
hypercalcemia. bone. the urine.
Gastrin and other
gastrointestinal
hormones also
stimulate calcitonin
output.

PARATHYR Parathyroid Low calcium levels Maitotoxin Bone, In bones PTH

OID GLAND Hormone(PTH) in the blood inhibits PTH kidneys, stimulates the release
secreted by chief stimulate release by intestine of calcium from
cells parathyroid blocking large calcium stores
hormone secretion, calcium in the bones into the
whereas high channels. bloodstream. It
calcium levels in the Calcium decreases the
blood prevent the channels may formation of new
release of play a role in bone and increases
parathyroid PTH release. bone destruction.
hormone. While in kidney,
PTH reduces loss of
calcium in urine.
Glucocorticoids It is generated by the It inhibit many Glucocorticoids are
(Cortisol) adrenal cortex in inflammation Anterior potent anti-
response to associated lobe of the inflammatory drugs
adrenocortico molecules such pituitary that act in tandem
 tropic hormone as cytokines, gland with the immune
(ACTH)produced by chemokines, system to treat a
the anterior lobe of arachidonic variety of ailments.
the pituitary gland, acid These hormones
which is regulated metabolites and have many jobs,
by the corticotropin- adhesion such as controlling
releasing molecules. how the cells use
hormone(CRH) sugar and fatand
released bythe curbing
hypothalamus. inflammation.
ADRENAL Mineralocorticoids It stimulate sodium Aldosterone- It is the regulation of
GLAND (Aldosterone) reabsorption and dependent electrolyte excretion
(CORTEX) potassium secretion transactivation Adrenal in the kidney.
in principal cellsof of cortex
the distal nephron. mineralocortico
id-responsive kidney
reporter genes
is inhibited by
geldanamycinin
a
concentration-
depent manner.
Gonadocorticoids The hypothalamus It inhibits both Ovaries It regulate sex
(Sex hormone) and pituitary gland POMC gene hormones such as
regulate the amount transcription in estrogen
of testosterone the anterior
produced and pituitary and
secreted by the CRH mRNA
testes. The pituitary synthesis and
gland receives a secretion in the
signal from the hypothalamus.
hypothalamus to
release
gonadotrophic
hormone.

ADRENAL Epinephrine and Epinephrine and Adenosine has Acts on Epinephrine is used
GLAND Norepinephrine Norepinephrine been shown to most cells to treat anaphylaxis,
(MEDULLA) released from the inhibit in the body cardiac arrest, and
adrenal medulla norepinephrine prolonging severe asthma
have the same release from and attacks.
effects on target sympathetic intensifyin Norepinephrine, is
organs as direct nerve endings. g the used to treat
sympathetic nerve sympatheti dangerously low
stimulation,but their c nervous blood pressure.
effect lasts longer. system
 response to
stress.
Insulin It stimulates the Release of Most Insulin aids the
(Beta cells in islets liver to store glucose insulin, is tissues, storage of excess
of Langerhans) in the form of strongly notably glucose in the
glycogen. inhibited by muscle and muscles and fat cells
norepinephrine liver so that it does not
adipose overload your
tissue. bloodstream. It
signals the muscle
and fat tissue cells to
avoid breaking down
glucose, allowing the
blood sugar level to
remain stable.

PANCREAS Glucagon It stimulates In terms of Primarily Glucagon’s role in

(Alpha cells in breakdown of negative liver the body is to
islets of glycogen stored in regulation, prevent blood
Langerhans) the liver. elevated blood glucose levels
glucose levels dropping too low.
inhibit
glucagon
secretion.

TESTES Testosterone Luteinizing When Sex organ It regulate sex drive

hormone (LH) testosterone is (libido), bone mass,
stiulates testosterone inhibited low fat distribution,
production. testosterone muscle mass and
levels can strength and the
cause mood production of red
disturbances, blood cells and
increased body sperm.
fat, loss of
muscle tone,
inadequate
erections and
poor sexual
performance,
osteoporosis,
difficulty with
concentration,
memory loss
 and sleep
difficulties.

OVARIES Estrogen Estrogens help to Estrogen Sex organ It regulates

stimulate the growth inhibits bone menstrual cycle,
of the egg follicle, remodeling and estrogen affects the
they also stimulate bone resorption reproductive tract,
the pituitary gland in and enhances the urinary tract, the
the brain to release bone formation. heart and blood
hormones that assist vessels, bones,
in follicular breasts, skin, hair,
development. mucous membrane,
pelvic muscle and
the brain.
Progesterone Progesterone Progesterone Uterus Progesterone is
stimulates the can be targeted released by corpus
growth of blood through two leteum in the ovary.
vessels that supply mechanisms: It plays important
the lining of the receptor roles in the
womb and blockade and menstrual cycle and
stimulates glands in enzyme in maintaining the
the endometrium to inhibition to early stages of
secrete nutrients that reduce pregnancy.
nourish the early progesterone
embryo. production.

PINEAL Melatonin It is stimulated in It is inhibited Melatonin main job

GLAND the absence of light. when the retina Brain in the body is to
detects light. regulate night and
Various day cycles or sleep –
tissues wake cycle.

THYMUS Thymosin It stimulates the Thymosin White It promotes cell

GLAND development of inhibited both blood cells migration, blood
disease-fighting T MMQ and C6 vessel formation,
cells. cell survival of cells,
proliferation in differentiation of
a concentration, stem cells,
time, and cell modulation of
number cytokines,
dependent chemokines and
manner. certain proteases as
well as up-regulation
of matrix molecules
and gene expression.