Rocket Propulsion: Unit-2 Lect 1 & 2 Chemical Propellants-Introduction

Rocket Propulsion
Unit-2
Lect 1 & 2 Chemical Propellants-Introduction
Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of

Aerospace, SRMIST
➢ Molecular mass.
➢ Specific heat ratio.
➢ Energy release during combustion.
➢ Stoichiometry & Mixture Ratio.
Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

 Molecular mass or molecular weight is the mass of a given
molecule.
 Different molecules of the same compound may have
different molecular masses because they contain
different isotopes of an element.
 Elements having lower atomic mass are preferred to obtain
lower molecular mass of the combustion gases.
 Definition of molecular weight is most authoritatively
synonymous with molecular mass; however, in common
practice, it is also highly variable as are the units used in
conjunction with it
 Unit: amu ( Atomic mass unit)
 Relative molecular mass is defined as the ratio of the mass
of a molecule to the unified atomic mass unit (also known
as the Dalton) and is unitless
 The molecular mass and relative molecular mass are
distinct from but related to the molar mass
Atomic Number of Light Elements

20 16 17
15 13
10 8 9
6 7
4 5
5 3
1
0
H Li Be Bo C N O F Al S Cl

 Molar mass is defined as the mass of a given substance
divided by the amount of a substance and is expressed in
g/mol.
 The molar mass is usually the more appropriate figure when
dealing with macroscopic (weigh-able) quantities of a
substance.
 Molar mass SI unit is g/mol
 Molecular masses are calculated from the atomic
masses of each nuclide present in the molecule, while
molar masses are calculated from the standard atomic
weights of each element.

 Specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise
the temperature by one degree Celsius.
 The specific heat of a gas increases as its molecular structure
become more complex. So the gases having lower specific heat
are preferred.
70
63.6
60.2
60 58.2
51
50
41.4
38.9 38.1 38.1
40 35.6 36 36.437.7 36.838.1 37.7
34.3 34.7
2000K
30 3000K
20.820.8 20.820.8 20.820.8 20.9

20
10
0
He He O H2 OH Hcl N2 CO NO O2 H2O CO2

 Specific heat ratio is defined as the ratio of the specific heat at
constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume.
 Smaller values of specific heat ratio is preferred to obtain higher
values of characteristic velocity
Cp
=
Cv
Cp Cp
= =
Cp − R Cp −
R0
Molecular mass

m
Case 1 Cn H m + xO2 → nCO2 + H 2O
2
m/2 m
where, x = n + = n+
2 4
n m n
Cn H m + xO2 → CO2 + H 2O + CO
Case 2 2 2 2
n m / 2 n/ 2 3n + m
where, x = + + =
2 2 2 4
The heat released by case 1 is higher than that of case2 because of formation of
carbon monoxide in case2
m
Cn H m + x ( O2 + 3.78 N 2 ) → nCO2 + H 2O + ( x  3.78 ) N 2
2
m/2 m
where, x = n + = n+
2 4
for example
complete burning of kerosene with air
C12 H 26 + x ( O2 + 3.76 N 2 ) → 12CO2 + 13H 2O + x (3.76 N 2 )
m/2 m
where, x = n + = n + = 12 + 6.5 = 18.5
2 4

 Stoichiometry
The term Stoichiometry refers to the amount of fuel and
oxidizer which leads to fuel being completely oxidised by
forming the completely oxidised product, which in turn
releases maximum amount of energy.
m
Cn H m + xO2 → nCO2 + H 2O
2
m/2 m
where, x = n + = n+
2 4
xO2 x  32
stiochiometric mixture ratio = =
( n  C ) + ( m  H ) ( n 12 ) + ( m 1)
 Mixture ratio is defined as the ratio of mass of the
oxidiser to the mass of fuel taking part in combustion.
M ox
MR =
Mf
 The mixture ratio corresponds to stoichiometric
composition is called as stoichiometric mixture
ratio(MR) stoi
 Oxidiser rich→ MR>(MR)stoi
 Fuel rich→ MR<(MR) stoi

 Equivalence ratio is defined as the ratio of
actual fuel to oxidiser mass ratio to that of
stoichiometric fuel to oxidiser mass ratio.
=
( m /m ) f ox actual
(m / m ) f ox stoi

Rocket Propulsion
Unit-2
Lect 3 Chemical Propellants-Classification-
Properties

Aerospace, SRMIST
 Criterionfor choice of propellant.
 Types and classifications.
 Solid propellants - requirement, composition
and processing.
 Liquid propellants- energy content, storability.

 Elements having lower atomic mass are preferred to obtain lower
molecular mass of the combustion gases.
 Smaller values of specific heat ratio is preferred to obtain higher
values of characteristic velocity
 Propellant density: higher density propellant.
 Stability of fuel and oxidiser: propellants with positive heat of
formation are less stable and reacts spontaneously and explode. So
choose propellants with negative heat of formation.
 Storability-temperature for storing propellant
 Corrosiveness-less corrosive
 Toxicity-less or no toxic
 Cost
A propellant consists of a fuel and an oxidizer.
 A fuel is a substance which burns when combined with

oxygen producing gas for propulsion.
 An oxidizer is an agent that releases oxygen for combination

with a fuel.

Chemical Propellants
Gaseous Hybrid
Solid Propellants Liquid Propellants propellants Propellants
Double base or Bipropellant (storable, non-

homogeneous propellants storable, hypergol)
Composite or
heterogeneous propellants Monopropellant
Composite modified Low, Medium , High

Double base propellants energy
Nitramine propellants Earth storable
Space Storable

 A solid rocket motor is a system that uses solid
propellants to produce thrust
 Advantages
 High thrust
 Simple
 Storability
 High density Isp
 Disadvantages
 Low Isp (compared to liquids)
 Complex throttling
 Difficult to stop and restart
 Safety

 High specific gravity (dense propellant)
 Stability (with time)
 Heat transfer properties
 Small variation in physical characteristics with
temperature
 Ignition, combustion, and flame properties

AP Ammonium Perchlorate
ADN Ammonium dinitramide
HNF Hydrazinium Nitroformate
HNIW or CL-20 Hexa nitro hexa
azaisowurzitane
 Liquid rubber (HTPB), AP and Al are mixed
under vacuum
 When properly mixed a curing agent is added
 Continued mixing
 Cast in mould to obtain desired shape
 Cured at elevated temperatures
 Mould = rocket motor
 Machining
 Final charge X-rayed to detect cracks, voids
etc
Depending on their physical state Liquid propellants can be further
subdivided into :
 monopropellants
 Bipropellants (in which a liquid fuel and a
Liquid oxidizer are stored separately)
Three main categories of liquid propellants may

be distinguished:
 Petroleum-based
 Hypergolic
 Cryogenic

Oxidizer Fuel Fuel density2 Temperature in Specific impulse
(g/cm3) combustion in a vacuum3(sec)
chamber (°K)
Liquid hydrogen (H2) 0.3155 3250 428
Kerosene 1.036 3755 335

Liquid oxygen Unsymmetrical 0.9915 3670 344
(O2) dimethylhydrazine
Hydrazine 1.0715 3446 346

Liquid ammonia 0.8393 3070 323
Kerosene 1.269 3516 309
Nitrogen Unsymmetrical 1.185 3469 318

tetroxide dimethylhydrazine
Hydrazine 1.228 3287 322

Liquid hydrogen 0.621 4707 449
Liquid fluorine
Hydrazine 1.314 4775 402
Fuel selection Guide
•Performance of Propellants
•Economic Factors
•Physical Hazards (Explosion, Fire, Spills)
•Health Hazards
•Corrosion

Rocket Propulsion
Unit-2
Lect 4 Heat of Reaction, Heat of combustion,
Heat of Formation

Aerospace, SRMIST
 Heat of Reaction
 Heat of Formation
 Heat of Combustion
 Hess’s Law

 The Heat of Reaction (also known and Enthalpy of Reaction)
is the change in the enthalpy of a chemical reaction
 A thermodynamic unit of measurement useful for calculating
the amount of energy per mole either released or produced in
a reaction
 Heat of reaction is the energy that is released or absorbed
when chemicals are transformed in a chemical reaction

 Heat of a reaction depends upon the conditions under
which the reactions are carried out. There are two general
conditions
 (a) Constant volume and temperature

 (b) Constant pressure and temperature

 First case the volume of the system is kept constant during the
course of the measurement by carrying out the reaction in a closed
and rigid container and as there is no change in the volume and so
no work is also involved.
 Heat of a reaction at constant volume is equal to the change in the

internal energy (Δ E) of the reacting system.
 The thermal change that occurs in a chemical reaction is only due

to the difference in the sum of internal energy of the products and
the sum of the internal energy of reactants.

 System is either kept open to the atmosphere or confined
within a container on which a constant external pressure is
exerted and under these conditions the volume of the system
changes.
 Thermal change at a constant pressure not only involves the
change in the internal energy of the system but also the work
performed either in expansion or contraction of the system

 Standard enthalpy of reaction (denoted ΔHr⦵) is the enthalpy
change that occurs in a system when matter is transformed by a
given chemical reaction, when all reactants and products are
in their standard states.
 Standard state of a material (pure substance, mixture or solution)
is a reference point used to calculate its properties under different
conditions.
 A superscript circle is used to designate a thermodynamic
quantity in the standard state

 Standard state is the reference state for the material's
thermodynamic state properties such as enthalpy, entropy,
Gibbs free energy, and for many other material standards
 The enthalpy change is defined as the amount of heat
absorbed or evolved in the transformation of the
reactants at a given temperature and pressure into the
products at the same temperature and pressure.

 Heat of formation or enthalpy of formation (ΔHf) is the
enthalpy change that accompanies the formation of a
compound from its elements
 Heat of formation, also called standard heat of formation,
enthalpy of formation, or standard enthalpy of formation,
the amount of heat absorbed or evolved when one mole of a
compound is formed from its constituent elements, each
substance being in its normal physical state (gas, liquid, or
solid)
 A positive enthalpy of formation indicates that the formation
of a compound is endothermic and negative enthalpy is
exothermic

 Standard enthalpy of formation or standard heat of
formation of a compound is the change of enthalpy during
the formation of 1 mole of the substance from its
constituent elements, with all substances in their standard
states. The standard pressure value p⦵ = 105 Pa

 Standard enthalpy of formation ΔHf⦵ of the reactants and
products by the following equation neglecting the heat of
mixing of reactants and products or assuming ideal solutions
involved
 Standard enthalpy change of formation for an element in its
standard state is zero

 Heat of Combustion, also called heating value or calorific
value or energy value of a substance is the amount of energy
that is released when burning a given amount of the substance.
 This energy is released in the form of heat, when the
substance is burned in standard conditions
 Heat of combustion is just the enthalpy of reaction for any
combustion reaction.
 Two kinds of heat of combustion, called higher and lower
heating value

 Standard heat of combustion(ΔHc⦵ ): The energy liberated
when a substance undergoes complete combustion, with
oxygen at standard conditions (25°C and 1 bar).
 In thermodynamical terms it is the negative of the enthalpy
change for the combustion reaction
 Combustion is always exothermic, the enthalpy change for the
reaction is negative, because heat is being lost or released.

 The heat of combustion will always be negative since the
reaction will be giving off heat as it breaks the chemical
bonds.
 The heat of formation should always be positive since it will
be taking in heat in order to produce the chemical bonds.
 Sum of the heat of formation for the products and the Sum of
the heat of formation for the reactants and taking the
difference (Hess's law) will give heat of combustion.

 Hess' law of constant heat summation, also known as Hess'
law (or Hess's law), is a relationship in physical chemistry
named after Germain Hess
 The law states that the total enthalpy change during the
complete course of a chemical reaction is the same whether the
reaction is made in one step or in several steps

Unit 2
Lect 5 Numerical problems
Example Problem: 1
Calculate the following for a reaction of with,
Case 1: Propane with Oxygen,
Case 2: n-butane with Air.
(a) the mole fraction and mass fraction of fuel,
(b) the stoichiometric ratio,
(c) the mole fraction and mass fraction of the products
(d) Heat of combustion
H f propane  103.85kJ / mol
H f butane  125.6kJ / mol
H f CO2  393.51kJ / mol
H f H 2O  285.83kJ / mol
Solution
Case  1
C3 H 8  xO2  3CO2  4 H 2O
m/2 8
where, x  n   3  3 2  5
2 4
a ) Mole fraction of fuel
1
Mo.FC3 H8   0.167
1 5
Mass fraction of fuel
1(3(12)  8(1))
Ma.FC4 H10   0.216
1(3(12)  8(1))  5(32)
b) stoichiometric ratio

mox 5(32)

  3.64
m f 1(3(12)  8(1))
c) mole fraction of products
4
Mo.FH 2O   0.5714
3 4
3
Mo.FCO2   0.4285
3 4
mass fraction of products
4(2(1)  16)
Ma.FH 2O   0.3529
3(12  32)  4(2(1)  16)
3(12  32)
Ma.FCO2   0.6470
3(12  32)  4(2(1)  16)
d ) Heat of Combustion
H  3(393.51)  4(285.83)  (103.85)
H  2220kJ
Case  2
C4 H10  x  O2  3.76 N 2   4CO2  5H 2O  x  3.76 N 2 
m/2 10
where, x  n   4   4  2.5  6.5
2 4
a) Mole fraction of fuel
1
Mo.FC4 H10   0.0313
1  6.5  6.5(3.76)
Mass fraction of fuel
1(4(12)  10(1))
Ma.FC4 H10   0.0610
1(4(12)  10(1))  6.5(32)  6.5  3.76(28)
b) stoichiometric ratio

mox 6.5(32)  6.5  3.76(28)

  15.385
mf 1(4(12)  10(1))
c) mole fraction of products
4
Mo.FH 2O   0.1196
4  5  6.5(3.76)
5
Mo.FCO2   0.1495
4  5  6.5(3.76)
6.5(3.76)
Mo.FN2   0.7308
4  5  6.5(3.76)
mass fraction of products
5(2(1)  16)
Ma.FH 2O   0.0947
4(12  32)  5(2(1)  16)  6.5(3.76)(28)
4(12  32)
Ma.FCO2   0.1852
4(12  32)  5(2(1)  16)  6.5(3.76)(28)
6.5(3.76)(28)
Ma.FN2   0.7201
4(12  32)  5(2(1)  16)  6.5(3.76)(28)
d ) Heat of Combustion
H  4(393.51)  5(285.83)  (125.6)
H  2877.6kJ
Rocket Propulsion
Unit-2
Lect 6 Heat of Reaction, Heat of combustion,
Heat of Formation- Numerical Problems

Aerospace, SRMIST
 Example (Solved) Numerical Problems
 Exercise Numerical Problems

The standard heat of combustion of benzene is −3271 kJ/mol, for
CO2 is −394 kJ/mol, and for H2O, is −286 kJ/mol. Calculate the
standard heat of formation of benzene
C6H6 + 15⁄2O2 ---> 6CO2 + 3H2O, ΔHc = −3271 kJ
ΔHc(C6H6) = ΣΔH comb, products − ΣΔH comb, reactants

−3271 = [(6) (−394) + (3) (−286)] − [ΔHf(C6H6) +(15⁄2) (0)]
= 49 kJ/mol

Calculate the heat of formation:

Determine the enthalpy change for the reaction 2.67 g sucrose,
C12H22O11, reacts with 7.19 g potassium chlorate, KClO3, 43.7 kJ
of heat are produced.

Use Hess's Law and determine ΔH for the reaction:
N2(g) + 2O2(g) ---> 2NO2(g)

Given the following equations
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ---> 2NH3(g) , ΔH = −115 kJ
2NH3(g) + 4H2O(ℓ) ---> 2NO2(g) + 7H2(g) , ΔH = −142.5 kJ
H2O(ℓ) ---> H2(g) + 1⁄2O2(g) , ΔH = −43.7kJ

The heat of combustion for the gases hydrogen, methane and
ethane are −285.8, −890.4 and −1559.9 kJ/mol respectively
at 298K. Calculate (at the same temperature) the heat of
reaction for the following reaction:
2CH4(g) ---> C2H6(g) + H2(g)

Solved Examples
Hess' Law of Constant Heat Summation
Problem #1: The heats of combustion of C(s, graphite), H2(g) and CH4(g) at 298 K and 1
atm are respectively −393.50 kJ/mol, −285.83 kJ/mol and −890.36 kJ/mol. What is the
enthalpy of formation for CH4?
Solution:
1) The three combustion reactions are:
C(s, gr) + O2(g) ---> CO2(g) ΔH = −393.50 kJ
H2(g) + 1⁄2O2(g) ---> H2O(ℓ) ΔH = −285.83 kJ
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ---> CO2(g) + 2H2O(ℓ) ΔH = −890.36 kJ
2) The phrase 'enthalpy of formation' tells us this reaction is called for:
C(s, gr) + 2H2(g) ---> CH4(g)
3) This is what an answerer on Yahoo Answers wrote:
This is a Hess's Law problem. If you multiply the first reaction by 1, the second by 2, and the
third by negative 1 (write it backwards) they add together to give the reaction you're looking
for. So, the enthalpy of the reaction you're solving for is equal to 1(−393.50) + 2(−285.83) +
(−1)(−890.36). I'll let you finish it, the critical thing is understanding where the 1, 2, and −1
came from.
4)
C(s, gr) + O2(g) ---> CO2(g) ΔH = −393.50 kJ <--- equation left untouched
2H2(g) + O2(g) ---> 2H2O(ℓ) ΔH = −571.66 kJ <--- note the doubling
CO2(g) + 2H2O(ℓ) ---> CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ΔH = +890.36 kJ <--- note the sign change
5) When the three data equations are added together, duplicates on each side of the arrow will
be removed. Here's before any removal:
C(s, gr) + O2(g) + 2H2(g) + O2(g) + CO2(g) + 2H2O(ℓ) ---> CO2(g) + 2H2O(ℓ) + CH4(g) +
2O2(g)
6) After 2O2(g), CO2(g), and 2H2O(ℓ) are removed:
C(s, gr) + 2H2(g) ---> CH4(g)
7) The three revised entalpies are added to arrive at the final answer:
C(s, gr) + 2H2(g) ---> CH4(g) ΔH fo = −74.80 KJ
Problem #2: The standard heat of combustion of benzene is −3271 kJ/mol, for CO2 it is
−394 kJ/mol, and for H2O, it is −286 kJ/mol. Calculate the standard heat of formation of
benzene.
Solution #1:
1) The term 'standard heat of formation' tells us that this equation is the desired target:
6C(s) + 3H2(g) ---> C6H6(ℓ)
2) Set up the three combustion equations
C6H6 + 15⁄2O2 ---> 6CO2 + 3H2O ΔH = −3271 kJ
C + O2 ---> CO2 ΔH = −394 kJ
H2 + 1⁄2O2 ---> H2O ΔH = −286 kJ
3) Flip equation 1, multiply equations 2 and 3:
6CO2 + 3H2O ---> C6H6 + 15⁄2O2 ΔH = +3271 kJ
6C + 6O2 ---> 6CO2 ΔH = −2364 kJ
3H2 + 3⁄2O2 ---> 3H2O ΔH = −858 kJ
4) Add the three equations:
3271 + (−2364) + (−858) = +49 kJ/mol
Solution #2:
1) Write the equation for the combustion of benzene:
C6H6 + 15⁄2O2 ---> 6CO2 + 3H2O ΔH = −3271 kJ
2) The enthalpy of formation of beneze can be calculated thusly:
ΔH rxno = Σ ΔH comb, productso − Σ ΔH comb, reactantso
Where 'comb' stands for combustion.
3) Inserting values and solving, we have:
−3271 = [(6) (−394) + (3) (−286)] − [(1) (x) + (15⁄2) (0)]
x = 49 kJ/mol
Problem #3: The heat of combustion for the gases hydrogen, methane and ethane are −285.8,
−890.4 and −1559.9 kJ/mol respectively at 298K. Calculate (at the same temperature) the
heat of reaction for the following reaction:
2CH4(g) ---> C2H6(g) + H2(g)
Solution:
1) The data given are these three reactions:
H2 + 1⁄2O2 ---> H2O ΔH = −285.8 kJ
CH4 + 2O2 ---> CO2 + 2H2O ΔH = −890.4 kJ
C2H6 + 7⁄2O2 ---> 2CO2 + 3H2O ΔH = −1559.9 kJ
2) Manipulate the data equations as follows:
a) flip (puts hydrogen as a product)
b) multiply by 2 (gives us 2CH4 on the reactant side)
c) flip (puts C2H6 as a product)
3) You then obtain these data equations:
H2O ---> H2 + 1⁄2O2 ΔH = +285.8 kJ
2CH4 + 4O2 ---> 2CO2 + 4H2O ΔH = −1780.8 kJ
2CO2 + 3H2O ---> C2H6 + 7⁄2O2 ΔH = +1559.9 kJ
4) When you add the three equations above, the 4O2 will cancel as will the 2CO2 and the
4H2O. Adding the three enthalpies yields the answer to the problem, +64.9 kJ.
Problem #4: What is the standard enthalpy of reaction for the reduction of iron(II) oxide by
carbon monoxide?
FeO(s) + CO(g) ---> Fe(s) + CO2(g)
given the following information:
3Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) ---> 2Fe3O4(s) + CO2(g) ΔH = −48.26 kJ
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) ---> 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g) ΔH = −23.44 kJ
Fe3O4(s) + CO(g) ---> 3FeO(s) + CO2(g) ΔH = +21.79 kJ
Solution:
1) Changes to be made to the data equations:
a) reverse equation 1 (this puts Fe3O4 on opposite side to compensate for switching equation
3)
b) multiply equation 2 by 3 (this will give 3Fe2O3, allowing it to cancel)
c) reverse equation 3 and multiply it by two (this puts FeO on the reactant side and gives us
2Fe3O4 to cancel)
Please note that no attention was paid to CO and CO2. If everything else is done correctly,
they should fall into line.
2) The three data equations with the changes applied:
2Fe3O4(s) + CO2(g) ---> 3Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) ΔH = +48.26 kJ
3Fe2O3(s) + 9CO(g) ---> 6Fe(s) + 9CO2(g) ΔH = −70.32 kJ
6FeO(s) + 2CO2(g) ---> 2Fe3O4(s) + 2CO(g) ΔH = −43.58 kJ
3) Adding the three equations together gives:
6FeO(s) + 6CO(g) ---> 6Fe(s) + 6CO2(g)
and the enthalpy for the above reaction:
+48.26 + (−70.32) + (−43.58) = −65.64 kJ
4) Dividing through by six gives the final answer:
FeO(s) + CO(g) ---> Fe(s) + CO2(g) ΔH = −10.94 KJ
Rocket Propulsion
Unit-3
Lect 1 Solid Propellant Rocket-Introduction &
Classifications

Aerospace, SRMIST
 Solid Rocket-Introduction
 Classifications

• A solid rocket motor is a system that uses solid
propellants to produce thrust
• Advantages
– High thrust
– Simple
– Storability
– High density Isp
• Disadvantages
– Low Isp (compared to liquids)
– Complex throttling
– Difficult to stop and restart
– Safety

 Idea is to increase surface area of the channel , increasing
burn area and therefore thrust
 High initial thrust and lower thrust at Middle of the flight
 Propellant flexibility control by ratio of binder to curing
agent and solid ingredients

Igniter
Case with propellant Nozzle

Rocket Propulsion
Unit-3
Lect 2 Solid Propellant Rocket-Hardware
components & Functions

Aerospace, SRMIST
 Solid Rocket
 Solid Rocket motor- Components

The Major Components are:
• Motor casing
• Thermal Insulation
• Propellant grain
• Igniter
• Combustion chamber
• Exhaust Nozzle
 System is either kept open to the atmosphere or confined
within a container on which a constant external pressure is
exerted and under these conditions the volume of the system
changes.
 Thermal change at a constant pressure not only involves the
change in the internal energy of the system but also the work
performed either in expansion or contraction of the system

• Design involves:
– Analysis of combustion chamber environment
• Stagnation temperature
• Stagnation pressure
• Propellant gases (material compatibility)
– Selection of insulation material
– Material thickness determination for various areas
of the motor case
– For the cylindrical part of the case, the walls are
only exposed to hot combustion gases at the end of
the burn

• Combustion takes place in the motor case;
therefore, sometimes it is referred to as combustion
chamber.
• Case must be capable of withstanding the internal
pressure resulting from the motor operation,
approximately 3-30 MPa, with a sufficient safety
factor.
• Motor case is usually made either from metal (high-
resistance steels or high strength aluminum alloys)
or from composite materials (Glass, Kevlar and
Carbon).

• High temperature of the combustion gases,
ranging from approximately 2000 to3500 K,
requires the protection of the motor case or
other structural subcomponents of the rocket
motor
• Low thermal conductivity, high heat capacity and
usually they are capable of ablative cooling
• EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer) with
addition of reinforcing materials
• Shape of combustion channel  Pre-
programmed pressure and thrust profile

• Large solid motors typically use a three-stage ignition
system
– Initiator: Pyrotechnic element that converts
electrical impulse into a chemical reaction (primer)
– Booster charge
– Main charge: A charge (usually a small solid motor)
that ignites the propellant grain. Burns for tenths
of a second with a mass flow about 1/10 of the
initial propellant grain mass flow.
 .
• The design of the nozzle follows similar steps as for other
thermodynamic rockets
– Throat area determined by desired stagnation pressure

and thrust level
– Expansion ratio determined by ambient pressure or
pressure range to allow maximum efficiency
• Major difference for solid propellant nozzles is the technique

used for cooling
– Ablation
– Fiber reinforced material used in and near the nozzle
throat (carbon, graphite, silica, phenolic)
Rocket Propulsion
 Unit-3
Lect 3 Solid Propellant Rocket-Mechanism of
burning-Combustion Process

Aerospace, SRMIST
 Mechanism of burning
 Combustion Process

•The chemical process in which a substance reacts with
oxygen to produce heat is called as combustion.
•The substance which undergoes combustion is called as

combustible substance, a fuel.
• Sometimes light also produced during combustion either as

a flame or as a glow.
• Air( Oxidizer) is necessary for combustion

•Flame is the zone of combustion of a combustible
substance.
•Substances which vaporize during burning produce flames.

E.g. kerosene, wax etc.
• Substances which do not vaporize during burning do not

produce flames.
E.g. coal, charcoal etc.

• Propellants, in their simplest forms, consist of a
dispersion of varying sized oxidizer particles within
a matrix of fuel/binder.
• The combustion process involves a magnitude of
sub processes, or steps.
• One shortcoming of the BDP model is that it
considers a single particle size of oxidizer.

•The PEM model recognizes that most composite
propellants contain a wide dispersal of oxidizer particle
sizes.
•Such a scattering is desirable because propellants

with a single oxidizer particle diameter are limited to
slightly more than an 80% theoretical maximum
oxidizer mass fraction.
•Small oxidizer particles are necessary to fit in between

the large ones in order to have a high oxidizer
percentage.
• Small pieces burn fast
• The combustion proceeds perpendicular to the
surface
• Gas generation proportional to burning surface (
Ab) and burning rate, r
• Mass flow rate is given by,
m  Ab r p
m  Ab r p m 
pc At
c*
r  ap n
c
1
 Ab a p c *  1 n
pc   
 At 
n must be < 1, preferably 0.5 or lower
The minimum temperature at which a substance catches fire
and burns is called its ignition temperature.
A substance will not catch fire and burn if its temperature is

lower than its ignition temperature.
Substances which have very low ignition temperature and

can easily catch fire with a flame are called inflammable
substances.
Eg:- Petrol, Alcohol, LPG, CNG etc.

Rocket Propulsion
Unit-3
Lect 4 Burn rate,Governing Equations,Area
Relationship

Aerospace, SRMIST
 Burn rate
 Factors influencing Burn Rate
 Burn rate law
 Governing Equations
 Area Relationship

• The propellant burn rate is the rate at which the
exposed propellant surface is consumed. (It is
measured as distance normal to surface consumed in a
given time.)
• The burning surface of a rocket propellant grain
recedes in a direction perpendicular to this burning
surface.
• The rate of regression, typically measured in inches
per second (or mm per second), is termed burning
rate (or burn rate)
 Burn rates are determined in sub-scale firing.
Firing motors with different throat sizes, burn
rate is obtained as a function of different
chamber pressures.
 Burn rate is an empirical representation and
doesn’t address complex thermochemical and
combustion processes.

Propellant burning rate is influenced by:
• Combustion chamber pressure
• Initial temperature of the propellant grain
• Velocity of the combustion gases flowing parallel to the
burning surface
• Local static pressure
• Motor acceleration and spin

• Decrease the oxidizer particle size
• Increase or reduce the percentage of oxidizer
(greater O/F ratio)
• Adding a burn rate catalyst or suppressant
• Operate the motor at a lower or higher
chamber pressure

• Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3), copper oxide (CuO), Manganese
Dioxide (MnO2) are commonly used catalysts in AP
based composite propellants, as is copper chromate
(Cu2Cr2O5 or 2CuO Cr2O3).
• Potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7 or ammonium
dichromate (NH4)2Cr2O7 for AN based mixtures.
• Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3), Iron sulphate (FeSO4) and
potassium dichromate for KN-Sugar propellants
• Lampblack (carbon) may slightly increase the burn rate
of most propellants through increased heat transfer
from the combustion flame to the propellant surface.
 Burn rate Law,
 Burn Rate Coefficient: a
 Burn Rate Exponent: n
 Typical Values: 0.05–2 in/s

The performance of a SRM depends on:
Propellant burn rate,
 Exposed propellant grain surface area,
 Nozzle throat and exit area,
 Amount of energy in propellant.

Depending on the burning progression, we distinguish between:
 Progressive Burning: burn surface increases with time,
 Neutral Burning: burn surface remains relatively constant with
time,
 Regressive Burning :Burn surface decreases with time.

 Rate of change of mass (in chamber) is equal to
difference between the mass entering chamber and
mass leaving through throat.

Rocket Propulsion
Unit-3
Lect 5 Solid Propellant Grain

Aerospace, SRMIST
 InternalBurning Charge Design
 Grain- Cross Sectional Geometries

Rocket Propulsion
Unit-3
Lect 6 Solid Rocket Design-Numerical problems

Aerospace, SRMIST
Calculate the ideal density of a solid rocket propellant consisting
of 68% ammonium perchlorate, 18% aluminum, and 14% HTPB
by mass. Density of Rocket Propellants are AP = 1950 Kg/m3,
Al = 2700 Kg/m3,HTPB = 930 Kg/m3
Solution:
Given: Propellant compositions,
wAP = 0.68
wAl = 0.18
wHTPB = 0.14

Solution:

A solid rocket motor burns along the face of a central cylindrical
channel 10 meters long and 1 meter in diameter. The propellant has a
burn rate coefficient of 5.5mm/s, a pressure exponent of 0.4 at 5 MPa,
and a density of 1700 Kg/m3. Calculate the burn rate in mm/s ,and the
product generation rate when the chamber pressure is 5 MPa.
Given: a = 5.5 mm/s
n = 0.4
Pc = 5.0 MPa
ρ = 1700 Kg/m3
Ab = 3.14 × 1 × 10 = 31.416 m2

r = a × Pcn
r = 5.5 × 5.00.4 = 10.47 mm/s
mass flow rate,q =
p × Ab × r
q = 1.70 × 31.416 × 10.47 = 559 kg/s
Solution :
Burn rate, r = a × Pcn

r = 5.5 × (5.00)0.4= 10.47 mm/s
mass flow rate, q = ρ × Ab × r

q = 1700 × 31.416 × 10.47 x 10-3
= 559 kg/s

Determine the following for a solid rocket engine : (a) characteristic velocity, (b)
thrust coefficient at optimum expansion, (c) specific impulse at sea level, (d)
nozzle throat area, (e) weight of propellant and (f) burning surface area. The rocket
engine has the following operating characteristics:
Sea level thrust = 10,000 N
Burn Duration = 10 sec
Chamber pressure = 7.09 MPa
Specific heat ratio = 1.26
Chamber Temperature = 2500 K
Burning rate = 6 mm/sec at 7.0.928 MPa
Propellant density = 1670 Kg/m3
Molecular mass = 22 kg/kmol
Assuming a neutral burning (with a cigarette burning grain) and an adapted nozzle
at sea level,.

Given :
Thrust = 10000 N
Burn Time = 10 s
γ = 1.26
Chamber Temperature,TC = 2500 K
Chamber Pressure,PC = 7.09 MPa
Burn rate, r = 6 mm/s
Propellant density =1670 kg/m3
Molecular weight =22kg/ kmol
Exit Pressure, Pe=Pa= 1.01325 atm

Solution :

A solid rocket engine has the following operating characteristics:
Sea level thrust =15,000 N
Burn Duration =10 sec
Chamber pressure =9 MPa
Specific heat ratio =1.26
Chamber Temperature =2500 K
Burning rate = 8 mm/sec at 9 MPa
Propellant density =1600 Kg/m3
Molecular mass =28 kg/kmol
Assuming a neutral burning at sea level, Find:(a) characteristic
velocity,(b) thrust coefficient at optimum expansion,(c) specific impulse
at sea level,(d) nozzle throat area,(e)weight of propellant and(f) burning
surface area,(g) Exit Area of nozzle
Rocket Propulsion
Unit-3
Lect 8 Ignition systems
Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace,

SRMIST
 Ignition Systems
 Igniter Types

IGNITION SYSTEMS
Solid propellant ignition consists of a series of complex rapid events:
• Heat generation
• Transfer of the heat from the igniter to the motor grain surface,
• Spreading the flame over the entire burning surface area,
• Filling the chamber free volume (cavity)with gas,
• Elevating the chamber pressure without serious abnormalities
such as overpressures, combustion oscillations, damaging
shock waves, hang fires(delayed ignition), extinguishment, and
chuffing.
“ Igniter” in a solid rocket motor generates the heat and gas

required for motor ignition.
Saravanan.G Dept of Aerospace Engineering, SRMIST

PHASES OF IGNITION
• Phase I, local Ignition time: the period from the
moment the igniter receives a signal until the first
bit of grain surface burns.
• Phase II, Flame-spreading interval: the time from
first ignition of the grain surface until the complete
grain burning area has been ignited.
• Phase III, Chamber-filling interval: the time for
completing the chamber filling process and for
reaching equilibrium chamber pressure and flow.

IGNITION SYSTEMS
Attainment of equilibrium chamber pressure with full gas flow
depends on :
• Characteristics of the igniter and the gas temperature,
composition and flow issuing from the igniter,
• Motor propellant composition and grain surface
ignitability,
• Heat transfer characteristics by radiation and convection
between the igniter gas and grain surface,
• Grain flame spreading rate, and
• The dynamics of filling the motor free volume with hot gas

FACTORS AFFECTING IGNITABILITY OF
PROPELLANT
• The propellant formulation,
• The initial temperature of the propellant grain surface
• The surrounding pressure
• The mode of heat transfer
• Grain surface roughness
• Age of the propellant
• The composition and hot solid particle content of the igniter gases
• The igniter propellant and its initial temperature
• The velocity of the hot igniter gases relative to the grain surface
• The cavity volume and configuration.

PYROTECHNIC IGNITER

PYROTECHNIC IGNITER
• In industrial practice, pyrotechnic igniters are defined
as igniters using
• Solid explosives or
• Energetic propellant-like chemical formulations
(usually small pellets of propellant which give a large
burning surface and a short burning time) as the heat-
producing material.

PYROTECHNIC IGNITER
• The common pellet-basket design is typical of the
pyrotechnic igniters.
• A special form of pyrotechnic igniter is the surface-
bonded or grain-mounted igniter.
• Such an igniter has its initiator included within a
sandwich of flat sheets
• Layer touching the grain is the main charge of
pyrotechnic.
• This form of igniter is used with multipulse motors
with two or more end-burning grains.

PYROGEN IGNITERS

PYROGEN IGNITERS
• A pyrogen igniter is basically a small rocket motor that is used to
ignite a larger rocket motor.
• The pyrogen is not designed to produce thrust.
• One or more nozzle orifices, both sonic and supersonic
types, and most use conventional rocket motor grain
formulations and design technology.
• Initiator and booster charge are similar in designs used in pyrotechnic
igniters.
• Heat transfer from the pyrogen to the motor grain is largely
convective, with the hot gases contacting the grain surface as
contrasted to a highly radiative energy emitted by pyrotechnic
igniters.
• Reaction products from the main charge impinge on the surface of the
rocket motor grain, producing motor ignition
Saravanan.G Dept of Aerospace Engineering, SRMIST 40

IGNITER LOCATIONS
Saravanan.G Dept of Aerospace Engineering, SRMIST 41

Rocket Propulsion
Unit-3
Lect 9 Action time and burn time, Burn rate index

Aerospace, SRMIST
 Action Time
 Burn Time
 Burn rate at reference condition

• Start time ts is defined as the instant when chamber
pressure Pc has risen to 10% Pmax at the beginning part
of pressure-time curve.
• End time t𝑒 is defined as the instant when chamber
pressure Pc has fallen to 10% Pmax at the ending part
of the same curve.
• Under this pressure, the flow is no longer choked at
the throat.
• The time interval between these two instants
represents the action time ta = ts- te

 “Burn time” refers to the duration in which rocket
engine(s) is activated to produce meaningful thrust.
 For an example consider a rocket with the peak
pressure is 20 bar then the time when pressure reaches
to 2 bar (i.e. 10% of peak pressure) to the time when
pressure starts dropping and reaches to 18 bar (i.e. 90%
of peak pressure)
 Time between these two incidence is the burn time of a
rocket motor


Rocket Propulsion: Unit-2 Lect 1 & 2 Chemical Propellants-Introduction

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Rocket Propulsion

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Atomic Number of Light Elements

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

20.820.8 20.820.8 20.820.8 20.9

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

 Oxidiser rich→ MR>(MR)stoi

 Fuel rich→ MR<(MR) stoi

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

 A fuel is a substance which burns when combined with

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Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Double base or Bipropellant (storable, non-

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Nitramine propellants Earth storable

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Three main categories of liquid propellants may

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Kerosene 1.036 3755 335

Hydrazine 1.0715 3446 346

Nitrogen Unsymmetrical 1.185 3469 318

Hydrazine 1.228 3287 322

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

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Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

 Heat of a reaction at constant volume is equal to the change in the

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Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

C6H6 + 15⁄2O2 ---> 6CO2 + 3H2O, ΔHc = −3271 kJ

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Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

N2(g) + 2O2(g) ---> 2NO2(g)

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST

Saravanan.G, Assistant Professor ( S.G), Department of Aerospace, SRMIST