BSBA

BSBA

People and the Earth’s

Ecosystem
(GEED 20113)
Module 1
Population Ecology

by:
Adelina Miraflor H. Jalos

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Overview:
This module 1 will introduce you to the study of population ecology as an interesting and
dynamic field of science.
The lessons included in this module will give you a clearer understanding of the different
characteristics of population, How population grow in size, the life history patterns of organism
and describe the factors that affect human population growth

Content:
Lesson 1 – Population Ecology
1.1. Characteristics of Population
1.2. Population Growth
1.3. Life History Patterns
1.4. Human Populations

Course Outcomes:
General Objectives:
At the end of the semester, learners should be able to:
Knowledge:
1. Gain knowledge and deeper understanding of population ecology and characteristics of
population.
2. Understand the factors that shape life history patterns.
3. Have knowledge and understanding the factors that affect human population growth.

Skills:
1. Explain the characteristics of human population.
2. Reflect about the effect of exponential growth of human population.
3. Make a flyers/brochure/infomercial on how to sustain the earth’s limited resources in
your community on the current exponential growth of human population.

Attitude:
1. Appreciate the significance of invention in agriculture, and technological innovations, the
human population has sidestepped environmental resistance to growth.

Specific Objectives:
At the end of the lesson the learners should be able to:
1. Define population, ecology, population size, population density, population distribution
and demographics.
2. Identify the characteristics of population.
3. Differentiate opportunistic life history from equilibrial life history
4. Explain the factors that affect population growth.
5. Identify the factors that affect human population growth.

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6. Make a plan on how to help the community in addressing the impact of rapid population
growth.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to

1. Define population, ecology, population size, population density, population

distribution and demographics.
2. Identify the characteristics of population.
3. Differentiate opportunistic life history from equilibrial life history
4. Explain the factors that affect population growth.
5. Identify the factors that affect human population growth.
6. Make a flyers/brochure/infomercial on how to sustain the earth’s limited resources in
your community on the current exponential growth of human population.

Course Materials:

Lesson 1 – POPULATION ECOLOGY:

Pre test:

Multiple choice. Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answer in one fourth sheet
of paper. Be honest in checking your answer. Avoid erasure.
1. Most commonly, individuals of a population have a ____________distribution.
a. Clumped b. random c.nearly uniform d.none of
these
2. All members of population_________
a. Are the same b. reproduce c. belong to the same species all of the
above.
3. The exponential model of population growth assumes _________
a. The death rate .declines as population density increases.
b. Per capita growth rate does not change
c. Industrialization causes a fall in birth rates.
d. Resources are limited
4. For a given species, the maximum rate of population increase under ideal conditions is
the______
a. Biotic potential c. opportunistic strategy
b. Carrying capacity d. density control
5. An increase in the population of prey species would most likely_____the carrying
capacity for that species’ predators.

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a. Increase b. decrase c. not affected d. stabilize

6. The human population is now about_______

a. 7 billion c. 7 million
b. 70 billion d.70 million
7. Compared to the less developed countries, the highly developed ones have a
higher______
a. Death rate c. total fertility rate
b. Birth rate d. ecological footprints
8. The total fertility rate of population is_______
a. Always higher than the replacement fertility rate
b. The average number of offspring a female has in her lifetime.
c. The maximum number of children a woman could have it her resources were
unlimited.
(1)
9. Human population growth was encouraged by_______
a. Invention of agriculture b. medical advances c. improved sanitation d. all
of the above
10. Carrying capacity_______
a. Is the same for all species that share a habitat
b. Is constant for a given species regardless of its habitat
c. Varies among both species and habitats
d. Is constant over time

Introduction:
The earth’s human population has doubled in less than fifty years, Today, the human
population 7.8billion(as of Aug. 2020) and will reach more than eight billion in the years to
come. Human population growth is one of the most environmental issues of the 21st century.
What challenges do we face with this unprecedented growth? What factors might most affect
the rates of this growth into the future?
The study of population ecology includes understanding the characteristics of population, it’s
growth and organism’s life history.

Key Terms:
demographics – statistics that describe a population
ecology – the study of interactions among organisms.
population - a group of organisms of the same species who live in a specific location and
breed with one another more often than they breed with members of other population.
population density – number of members of a population in a given area.
population distribution – the way in which members of a population are dispersed in their
environment.
population size – number of individuals in a population
carrying capacity – maximum number of individuals of a species that a specific environment
can contain.
density-dependent limiting factor – factor whose negative effect on growth is felt most in
dense populations;
ex. Competition for food, infectious disease
density-independent limiting factor – factor that limits growth in populations regardless of
their density;

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ex.natural disaster or harsh weather

logistic model of population growth – model for a growth of population limited by density-
dependent factors; numbers increase exponentially at first, then the growth rate slows and
population size levels off at carrying capacity.
biotic potential – maximum possible population growth under optimal conditions.
equilibrial life history – life history favored in stable environments; individuals grow large, then
invest a lot in each of a few spring.
life history traits - set of traits related to growth, survival, and reproduction such as life span,
age-specific mortality, age at first reproduction, and number of breeding events.
opportunistic life history – life history favored in unpredictable environments; individuals
reproduce while young and invest little in each of many offspring.
(3)

Population ecology is the study of how plant and animal population within a community affect
each other. A population is a group of individuals of a single species living in the same general
area. Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms, and between organisms and their
physical environment. Ecology is not the same as environmentalism, which is advocacy for
protection of environment. Environmentalists often cite the results of ecological studies when
drawing attention to environmental concerns.

1.1. Characteristics of Population:

2. Population Density refers to the size of any population in relation to some unit of space.
It is expressed in terms of the number of individuals or biomass per unit area or volume,
as for example, 500 coconut tree per hectare; 40 goats per 10Km2 ;5 million diatoms
per cubic meter of water. Population density is seldom static and it changes with
time and space.
Population size can be measured by several methods:
a. Abundance-absolute number of individuals in population
b. Numerical Density – number of individuals per unit area or volume. It is expressed
when the size of individuals in the population is relatively uniform, as ni mammals,
insects and birds.
c. Biomass density- is expressed in terms of wet weight, dry weight, volume, and
carbon and nitrogen weight per unit are or volume.
(2)

Population density can be expressed in two ways:

a. Crude Population Density – when the density is expressed with reference to total
area at a particular time.
b. Ecological Density – when the density is expressed with reference to total area of
habitat available to the species. The distribution between crude density and
ecological density becomes important because the patterns of distribution of
individuals in nature are different and individuals of some species. Population density
calculated in total area would be crude density and the densities for the shade areas
and open areas separately would be ecological densities.
Population density can be calculated by the following equation:
D = n/a/t Where D is population density; n is the number of individuals; a is area t is
unit time. Density oh human population can be obtained by dividing the total number of
persons in the area by the total land area of the region. Density of population of a country
can be obtained by dividing the total number of persons living in the given region by total

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land area of that region.

3. Natality refers to the rate of reproduction or birth per unit time. It is an expression of the
production of new individuals in the population by birth, hatching, germination or fission.
Natality is calculated by the following formula:
Birth rate or Natality (B) – Number of births per unit time/Average population.
The maximum number of births produced per individual under ideal conditions of
environment is called potential natality. It is also called reproductive or biotic
potential, absolute natality or maximum natality.
Natality varies from organism to organism. It depends upon the population density and
environmental factors. It is a general rule that if the population density is usually low, the
birth rate is also low. This is so because the chances of mating between males and
females are low. If population density is usually high, the birth rate may also be low due
to poor nutrition or physiological or psychological problems related to crowding. The
maximum or absolute natality is observed wen the species exists under ideal ecological
and genetic conditions. The actual number of births occurring under the existing
environmental conditions is much less as compared to absolute natality. It is referred to
as ecological natality or realized natality. It is not constant for population and may vary
with size of population as well as with time.

4. Mortality refers to the number of deaths in population per unit time. Mortality rate = D/t
where: D is the number of deaths in the time.
Mortality can be expressed in two ways:
a. Minimum or Specific or Potential Mortality
It represent the minimum of theoretical loss of individual under ideal or non-limiting
condition. Thus, even under the best conditions individuals of a population would die
of old age determined by their physiological longevity. So, it is constant for a
population.
b. Ecological or Realized Mortality refers to the death of individuals of a population
under existing environmental conditions Since it varies with environmental
conditions, it is never constant. The maximum mortality occurs at the egg, larval,
seedling and old age. Mortality is affected by a number of factors, such as density,
competition, disease, predation and environment. Death rates vary among species
and are correlated with birth rates. When the rate of natality is equal to the rate of
mortality, the population is stationary.

1.2 Population Growth

It is one of the dynamic features of species population. Population size increases in a
characteristic way. When the number of individuals of population is plotted on the y-axis
and the times on the x-axis, a curve is obtained that indicates the trend in the growth of
population size in a given time. This curve is called population growth curve.

Types of Growth Curves:

a. Sigmoid Curve: when a few organism is introduced in an area, the population
increase is very low in the beginning(positive acceleration phase or lag phase), in the
middle phase, the population increase becomes very rapid (logarithmic phase) and
finally in the last phase population increase is slowed down (negative acceleration

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phase) until an equilibrium is attained Lund which population fluctuates according to

variability of environment.

The level beyond which no major increase can occur is referred to as saturation level
or carrying capacity. In the last phase the new organisms are almost equal to the
number of dying individuals and thus there is no increase in population size. In this
way , one gets sigmoid or 5-shaped growth curve.

J-Shaped and S-Shaped Population Growth curves

b. J-shaped curve. In the first phase there is no increase in population size because it
needs some time for adjustment in the new environment. Soon after the population is
established in the new environment, it starts multiplying rapidly. This increase in
population is continued till large amount of food materials exist in the habitat. After
sometime, due to increase in population size, food supply in the
habitat, becomes limited which ultimately results in decrease in population size. This
will result in J-shaped growth curve rather than S-shaped.

5. Age Distribution is another important characteristic of population which influences

natality and mortality. Mortality usually varies with age, as chances of death are more in
early and later periods of life span. Similarly, natality is restricted to certain age groups,
as for example, in middle age-groups in higher animals. According to Bodenheimer
(1958), the individuals of a population can be divided into pre-productive, reproductive,
and post-reproductive groups. The individuals of pre-reproductive group are young,
those of reproductive group are mature and those in post-reproductive group are old.

6. Population Fluctuations is the size and density of natural show a changing pattern over a
period of time.

Three types of variations in the pattern of population change

a. Non-fluctuating : when the population remains static over the years.
b. Cyclic: The cyclic variations may be (i) seasonal, and (ii) annual. Sometimes
seasonal changes occur in the population and there are additions to the population
and there are additions to the population at the time of maximum reproduction and
losses under adverse climatic conditions.qAwvgC

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Example of seasonal variations : met in mosquitoes and houseflies which are

abundant in particular season, and also the weeds in the field during the rainy
season. Annual cyclic variation is when the
population of a species shows regular ups and downs over the years. It appears in
the form of sigmoid curve with regular drops in population after peaks
c. Irruptive- when the change in population density does not occur at regular intervals
or in response to any obvious environmental factor. There is a sudden exponential or
logarithmic increase in population density in short time followed by equally quick drop
in population density due to deaths, and final return to normal level or even below
that level.

1.3 Life History Patterns:

Biotic Potential
The exponential growth rate for a population under ideal conditions is its biotic potential. This is
the theoretical value that would hold if shelter, food and other essential resources were
unlimited and there were no predators or
pathogens. Populations seldom reach their biotic potential because of limiting factors, and is
determined by life history traits, which are set of heritable traits such as rate of development,
age at first reproduction, number of breeding events, and life span.

Describing Life Histories

Each species has a characteristic life span, but only a few individuals survive to a maximum age
possible. Death is more likely at some ages than others, as is reproduction. Cohort is a group
of individuals that are all born at about the same time. Members of the cohort are tracked from
birth until the last members of the cohort dies.

Evolution of Life Histories

When producing offspring, an individual uses resources that it could otherwise use to grow and
maintain itself. Species differ in which they distribute their parental investment among offspring
and over the course of lifetime. Some invest little in each of many offspring, others invest a lot in
only a few offspring. Some reproduce once, while others many times. In studying this variations,
ecologists recognize two general life history strategies. Both strategies maximize the number
of offspring that will produced and survive, but in different environmental condition.

Differences between Opportunistic life history and Equilibrial life history

Opportunistic life history Equilibrial life history
shorter development longer development
early reproduction later reproduction
fewer breeding episodes, many young more breeding episodes, few young
per episode per episodes
less parental investment per young more parental investment per young
higher early mortality, shorter life span low early mortality, longer life span

Opportunistic life history, individuals produce as many offspring as possible, as quickly as

possible. Opportunistic species tend to have shorter generation time and small body size.
Annual plants like palay and corn have an opportunistic life history. They mature within weeks,

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produce many tiny seeds, then die. Flies are opportunistic animals. A fly can lay hundreds of
tiny eggs in a temporary food source such as a rotting tomato or a file of feces.

Equilibrial life history is when a species lives in a stable environment, competition for resources
can be fierce, parents produce a few, high-quality offspring. Equilibrial species tend to have a
large body and a long generation time.
Example are perennial plants like coconut tree and other fruit bearing trees. Mammals like
human being.

Predation and Life History Evolution

Predation can affect life history patterns because predators (including humans) act as selective
agents that affect the traits of a prey population. Predators often decrease prey density, which
indirectly increases the resources available to surviving prey. This ecological effect could
provide a link to evolution because it is generally assumed that resource availability influences
life history evolution.

1.4. Human Populations: Growing like a Weed

It’s been called the worlds most successful weed species because it has grown so quickly in
numbers and spread so far geographically. Everywhere this species has gone, it has taken over
local ecosystems.
Our species (Homo sapiens) is relatively young, with the earliest modern humans dating back
only to about 200,000 years ago. However in the relatively short period of time since then, a
total of about 108 billion people have lived on planet earth. More than 7% of them, or an
estimated 7.6 billion people, were alive in September 2019. The number of humans on the
planet is projected to increase to at least 9 billion by 2050 and could reach 11 billion or more by
2100. The human species also currently lives on every continent. Six of earth’s seven
continents are permanently inhabited on a large scale.

The rapid increase and spread of the human population have raised concerns about our
continued existence as a species. Some thinkers have speculated that continued rapid increase
in human numbers will sooner or later outstrip the resources available on planet Earth and lead
to a population catastrophe. Some scientists think we have a long way to go before that
happens. Other think we have already exceeded our limit, citing evidence of widespread
environmental damage caused by human actions and more than 1 billion people in the world
who live in extreme poverty.

STUDYING THE HUMAN POPULATION

We know more than about human population and how it has grown than we know about the
population of any other species. Demography is the scientific study of human populations.
Demography encompasses the size, distribution, and structure of populations. Population
structure is the proportion of people by age, sex and often, by the parameters as well, such as
ethnicity or education. Demography also encompasses population processes that change
population size and structure, including births, deaths, and migration.

Demography is considered to be at the crossroads of several disciplines, including sociology,

economics, epidemiology, anthropology, and history. Besides studying current populations,
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demographers reconstruct past population characteristics, such as estimating the world

population size 10,000 years ago. Demographers also make predictions about populations in
the future, such as how many people live in the cities in 2050. In addition, many demographers
study relationships between population characteristics and other factors such as economic,
social, or cultural factors.

Demographers use data from vital statistics registries and censuses, among other sources, to
calculate measures of population characteristics such as birth rate, death rate, fertility rate,
replacement fertility rate, life expectancy and population growth rate.

Age-Sex Structure
The age-sex structure of a population is a frequently measured population parameter. It refers
to the number of individuals of each sex and age group in the population. The age-sex structure
of a population is often represented by a special type of bar graph called a population pyramid.
You can see two examples of population pyramids in the following figures, the first for the sub-
Saharan African country of Nigeria and the second for France. Both population pyramids
represent the age-sex distribution in the year 2015, the most recent year for which data are
available. In each case, the population is distributed along the horizontal axis, with males shown
on the left and females on the right. The male and female populations are broken down into 5-
year age groups represented as horizontal bars along the vertical axis, with the youngest age
groups at the bottom and the oldest at the top.

Population pyramid of Nigeria 2015

Population pyramid for Nigeria in 2015 (CC BY-NC 3.0; English: The Central Intelligence Agency via Wikimedia.org)

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Population pyramid for France in 2015 (CC BY-NC 3.0; English: The Central Intelligence Agency via Wikimedia.org)

A great deal of information about a population can be gleaned from its population pyramid
because its shape changes slowly over time based on births and deaths and, in some cases,
international migration. Births add people to a population only in the youngest age group,
whereas deaths remove people from all age groups of a population. The population pyramid for
Nigeria, for example, is actually pyramidal in shape, with a broad base of young children and
tapered sides showing rapidly decreasing numbers of people at older ages. This type of pyramid
reflects a population that has high birth rates and relatively high death rates. The population
pyramid for France, in contrast,
has a nonpyramidal shape. The narrow base of children and young adults reflects a relatively
low birth rate over the past several decades. The bulge of people in mid- to late-adulthood is
evidence of higher birth rates in previous generations (the post-World War II baby boom)
coupled with low death rates. The larger proportion of females than males at older ages, which
is especially pronounced in the French population pyramid, is due to the higher rates of death of
males than females, especially in older age groups. This trend is seen in most human
populations.

Population pyramids may also provide insights about political and social stability and economic
development. An example of this is the so-called “youth bulge,” which is a disproportionately
large cohort of young adults, the age groups when people typically enter the labor force and
electorate. As an example, you can see a youth bulge in the 2010 population pyramid for Egypt
in the figure below. A youth bulge may cause young adults to have high rates of unemployment
and social and political alienation. These conditions, in turn, may result in a heightened risk of
violence and political instability. A youth bulge has been posited as an important contributor to
the rise of fascism in 20th-century Europe, the spread of communism during the Cold War, and
the events of the Arab Spring, which began in Egypt in 2011.

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The 2010 population pyramid for Egypt has a youth bulge in the young adult age groups. (CC
BY-NC 3.0; Delphi234 via Wikimedia.org)

Effects of Industrial Development:

Industrial development affects the demographics of human populations. The most highly
developed countries have the lowest fertility rate, the lowest infant mortality, and the highest life
expectancy. The demographic transition model describes how birth and death rates change
over the course of four stages development. Living conditions are harshest during the
preindustrial stage, before technological and medical advances become widespread. Birth and
death rates are both high, so the growth rate is low. As industrialization begins and food
production and health care improve, the death rate drops fast, but the birth rate declines more
slowly. As a result, the population growth rate are increases rapidly. Once industrialization is in
full swing, the birth rates move closer to the death rate, and the population grow less rapidly. In
the post industrial stage, a population’s growth rate becomes negative. The birth rate falls
below the death rate, and the population size slowly decreases. In some developed countries,
the decreasing total fertility rate and increasing life expectancy have resulted in high proportion
of older adults.

Resource consumption rises with economic and industrial development. Ecological footprint
analysis is one way to compare resource use. An ecological footprint is the amount of
Earth’s surface required to support a particular level of development and consumption in a
sustainable fashion. It includes the area needed to secure food source and manufacture
products, as well as the natural area needed to take up the excess carbon dioxide produced by
human activities.

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The average person in an industrialized nation uses far more nonrenewable resources than
one in a less developed country. For example, the United States accounts for about 4.6% of the
world population, yes it uses about 25% of

the world’s minerals and energy supply. Billions of people living in India, China and other less
developed nations
would like to own the same kinds of goods that people in developed countries enjoy. However,
given the current technology, Earth may not have the resource to make that possible. The World
Resources Institute estimates that for everyone now that alive to have an average American
lifestyle would require the resources of four Earths. Finding ways to meet the wants and needs
of expanding populations with limited resources will be a challenge.

Assessment
Self-test
Write your answer in a long bond paper

A. Compare and Contrast

1.Numerical Density vs Biomass Density
2.Crude Population density vs Ecological Density
3. Mortality vs Natality
4.Cyclic vs Irruptive
5.J-shaped Population Growth Curve vs S-shaped Population Growth Curve
6.Opportunistic life history vs Equilibrial life history

B. Think About These Questions:

1.What factors affect human population growth?
2.Why has the human species been called the world’s most successful weed species?
3.What is demography? What aspects of the population does it study?
6.Identify and define six common demographic measures.
7.What is the age-sex structure of a population?
8.How does a population pyramid represent the age-sex structure of a population?
9.Explain what can be learned about a population from its population pyramid.
10.How does human population growth affect the following?
a. quality of air and water
b. space available for recreation
c. stress and conflict
d. your lifestyle in the next 30 years.
e. your descendants lifestyle

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ENHANCEMENT ACTIVITY
MY ACTION PLAN
"Mitigation on the Effect of Human Exponential Population Growth Rate"

Name:_________________________ Score:________
Course, Year & Section:____________ Date:_________

I. Objectives:
1. Make an action plan on how to mitigate the effect of human exponential population growth rate in our limited resources
2.Create infomercial/flyers/brochure on how to mitigate the effect of human exponential population growth rate.

II. Materials:
coloring materials
short bond paper

III.Procedure:
Complete the table below:
TIME RESOURCE NEEDED EXPECTED
PROBLEMS OBJECTIVES STRATEGIES SUSTAINABILITY
FRAME Fund Human Materials OUTPUT

(identify the problem/s)

(state your
(minimum of two) objective/s to (what action/s
solve your should you do to Example
problem/s) achieve your 1 semester Source of
objectives) 3 months fund in (who will
year roun doing this participate materials
activity in this needed must be base
endeavour) on your Ex.
Ex. ex. objectives (consistent and
ask the laptop collaborative effort
support flyers/ of the persons
of LGU brochure involved)
own fund etc.

Reminders:
1. Answer all the activities given in this module.
2. Perform all the individual performance task.
3. Answer all the questions given in this module including pre test.
4. Have a portfolio of all the given task.
Submission of portfolio is scheduled depending on our present situation.(preferably
online submission)
If you have queries feel free to contact me on messenger (Group Chat), cellphone or
email.
Call and text will be entertain only during weekend (Saturday only) 8:00 AM to 5:00 PM
09452098767 – for globe user, 099883661993 = for smart user
adelinamiraflor23@gmail.com

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Rubric for brochure/flyers/infomercial

CATEGORY 5 4 3 2 1
Attractiveness & The output has The output has The output has The output has The output has no
Organization exceptionally attractive some formatting limited formatting formatting and
attractive formatting and and organized of and organization organization of
formatting and well-organized information of information material
well-organized information
information
Content-accuracy Use of facts and Use of facts and Use of facts and Use of facts and Use of facts and
Quantity the quantity of quantity of quantity of quantity of quantity of
information is information is very information is information is information is
exceptional good good but not present but limited limited
consistent
The output has The output has The output has a The output has a The output has The output has no
exceptional exceptional very good good organization limited organization
organization organization organization organization
Writing Grammar There are no There are very There are some There are several Grammatical
grammatical few grammatical grammatical grammatical mistakes are so
mistakes in the mistakes in the mistakes in the mistakes in the numerous that the
output output output output readability of the
output is impaired
Graphical/pictures Graphics go well Graphics go well Graphics go well Graphics do not Graphics not
with the text and with the text, but with the text, but go with the present in the
there is a good there are so many there are too few accompanying output
mix of text and that they distract and the output text or appear to
graphics from the text seems “text be randomly
heavy” chosen
Sources Careful and Careful and Careful and Sources are not Sources are not
accurate records accurate records accurate records documented documented
are kept to are kept to are kept to accurately or are accurately or are
document the document the document the not kept on many not kept on any
source of all the source of most of source of some of facts and graphics facts and graphics
facts and graphics the facts and the facts and
in the output graphics in the graphics in the
output output

Key to answers:
Pre test

10.c
9.d
8.b
7.d
6.a
5.a
4.a
3.b
2.c
1.a

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References:
Starr, C., Evers, C., & Starr, L. (2016) Biology Today and Tomorrow with Physiology (5th edition) Taguig, Phil.
Cengage Learning
Salandana G.,Faltaldo, R. III,& Lopez, M.(2016) Earth and Life Science, Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
Morano, L., Lpez, C. Jr., & Tan, A., (2011)Fundamentals of Biology 1, Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc.

eReferences:
Human Population Through Time: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PUwmA3Q0_OE&feature=share
Human Population: https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Hum
Pictures/illustrations retrieved from google.com

Prepared by:

ADELINA MIRAFLOR H. JALOS

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