[BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS]

Unit II – MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Study of muscles = myology (myo – prefix used for referring to muscles)

Specialized soft tissue system of the human body that undergoes contraction and relaxation (especially
by the help of proteins actin and myosin) thereby aiding in movement.
Morphology: cells of muscle are known as myocytes, the cytoplasm is known as sarcoplasm and the
plasma membrane around the myocytes is known as sarcolemma.
Muscle cells (muscle fibres) can produce action potential when they are excited chemically, electrically
and/or mechanically.
Muscle tissues are derived from the mesodermal germ layer via myogenesis.
Around 700 muscles in a normal, adult human.
Function: locomotion; maintenance of body posture; processes such as respiration, digestion,
circulation and others.
There are three types of muscles: skeletal, smooth, cardiac

(I) SKELETAL MUSCLES:

Around 40% of the body is skeletal muscle. They are also known as striated muscles.
Most of them end and begin in tendons (fibrous tissue attaching a muscle to a bone).
As seen in Fig. 1, each skeletal muscle (A) is composed of muscle bundles (fasciculus) (B) each of which
is surrounded by a type of connective tissue known as perimysium. The fasciculus in turn, is composed of
several fibres (C) (each 10 – 80 μm diameter and
enclosed by the sarcolemma). Each of these fibres
in turn is composed of thousands of myofibrils
(D). Each (D) consists of several myofilaments
(E) that are made up of several myosin and actin
filaments (main protein polymers responsible for
contraction). Myosin (thick) and actin (thin) are
present as interdigitation giving rise to an
alternative dark and light banding pattern as
observed in (D). Differences in the refractive
indexes of various parts of muscle fibres give rise
to the appearance of cross-striations. I (isotropic)
band contains actin whereas the A (anisotropic)
band is made up of myosin. Within the A band
there is a pale region named the H band which is
not superimposed with actin. A transverse M line
is also present in the middle of the H band. The
small projections from the myosin filaments are
known as cross bridges (as seen in L). Their
interaction with actin filaments aid in contraction.
Each myofibril is made up of several units known
as sarcomere (~2 μm) each of which is the length
between two consecutive Z discs. Thus, [1
sarcomere = Z disc – A {pale H (M line)} band –
I band – Z disc]. This complicated yet organized
structure of skeletal muscles, enable its
contraction and relaxation.
Fig. 1. Hierarchical organization of skeletal
muscle.

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Mechanism of muscle contraction:

Proteins involved: myosin (mostly myosin-II), actin, tropomyosin, troponin. There are others but these
are the fundamental ones. Tropinin in turn has 3 subunits – troponin I, troponin T and troponin C.
Tropomyosin molecules form long filaments that are present between actin chains. At almost regular
intervals, these filaments are interspersed with troponin molecules. The ‘T’ component binds the other
components to tropomyosin. ‘I’ binds to actin and inhibits interaction of myosin with actin and ‘C’ has
binding sites for Ca+2 so as to initiate contraction (Fig. 2).

Steps: action potential travels along motor neuron at nerve end, a neurotransmitter (eg. acetylcholine)
is secreted triggers opening of gated channels of muscle fibre membrane Na+ flows into these cells
sarcoplasmic reticulum (endoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells) releases lot of Ca+2 Ca+2 binds to
troponin C ‘I’s’ interaction with actin weakens actin and myosin slide alongside each other
[contraction]. For [relaxation], Ca+2 released from ‘C’ ‘I’ strongly interacts with actin no sliding.

The sliding filament mechanism: during contraction, the width of the A bands remain constant whereas
the Z lines move closer to each other. On the other hand, these lines move farther when relaxed (Fig. 3).
The energy required for this process is delivered by the hydrolysis of ATP.

Fig. 2. Arrangement of the major proteins Fig. 3. Sliding action of actin on myosin

(II) SMOOTH MUSCLES:

They are involuntary. No visible cross striations.

Although actin and myosin remain to be the main components (albeit different isoforms) that slide and
facilitate contraction, they are not arranged in a regular manner as observed in skeletal/cardiac muscles.
In place of Z lines, dense bodies are present in the cytoplasm, which are bound to actin.
Tropomyosin is present but troponin is absent. Contain lesser number of mitochondria.
Can be visceral/unitary (in walls of hollow viscera, eg. intestine) that functions as a syncytium or
multiunit (eg. in iris) which do not have interconnecting bridges. Blood vessels contain both the types.
Due to morphological differences, contraction in smooth muscle cells is not identical to that of
skeletal/cardiac muscles. Instead of troponin, here, Ca+2 binds to calmodulin activation of myosoin
(via phosphorylation) myosin binds to actin contraction.
Unlike any other muscle, visceral muscles contract when stretched.
Also, acetylcholine and norepinephrine have contradictory effects on membrane potential and
subsequent contraction of smooth muscles. While the former ensures contraction, the later usually
guides smooth muscles to relaxation.
Plasticity: property of smooth muscle because of which it behaves like a viscous mass rather than a rigid
structure. Eg. tension exerted by smooth muscle wall of urinary bladder.

(III) CARDIAC MUSCLES:

Present in the heart and is rich in excitatory and conductive muscle fibres.
Striations similar to skeletal muscles (Fig. 4).

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Fibres branch and interdigitate unlike skeletal muscle forming several

complete units, each of which is surrounded by a membrane.
Intercalated disc (occurs at Z line) is a unique feature which provides a
strong cell-cell cohesion that consequently helps in transmitting a
force/tension at one end to the other end (necessary in heart).
This arrangement helps in functioning of a heart as a syncytium
facilitating spread of excitation all along the muscle mass.
Fig. 4. Syncytium in cardiac muscles. The dark zig-zag line is an
intercalated disc.

Another unique feature is the specialized tissue (pacemaker tissue) of heart which generates repetitive
action potentials thereby allowing the heart to beat even after the nerves have been cut.

Skeletal Smooth Cardiac

Pattern Striated (light and dark bands) Non-striated Striated
Structure Long cylindrical cells, unbranched, Cells are spindle-shaped, Short cylindrical cells, branched,
multinucleated, fibres arranged as uninucleated, fibres arranged as uninucleated, fibres arranged as a
bundles sheets network
Control Voluntary (under our control) Involuntary Involuntary
Location Attached to skeleton Present in soft organs of body Walls of heart
Function Locomotion Digestion, respiration, etc. Circulation
Contraction Fast but for short duration Slow but for long duration Fast and rhythmic
Fatigue Easily get fatigued Doesn’t get fatigued Doesn’t get fatigued

Some common diseases/conditions associated:

o Muscular dystrophy (MD): generic terminology indicating progressive weakness in muscles (mostly
skeletal). Eg. Duchenne’s MD, Becker’s MD and several others.
o Metabolic myopathy: defect in cellular energy metabolism
o Myotonia: delayed relaxation after contraction
o Myasthenia gravis: autoimmune disorder
o Sarcopenia: age-related loss of muscle mass

Few techniques/instruments used:

o Electromyogram: records electrical activity of muscles
o Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)/NIR imaging: studies muscle physiology
o MRI, CT, DEXA: studies muscle mass, structure

Probable applications for engineers:

o Designing prosthetics; bio-bots; tissue engineering; etc.

References:
Arthur.C.Guyton, John E Hall, Textbook of Medical Physiology, 13/e, W.B. Saunders Company, 2016.
William F. Ganong, Review of Medical Physiology, 22/e, McGraw Hill, 2005.
https://bioengineering.illinois.edu/news/article/muscle-powered-biobots-walk-command
http://news.mit.edu/2012/mechanical-engineers-create-light-activated-skeletal-muscle-0830
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4858326/